obesity
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124][125]
Classification
- body mass index (BMI) > 30; normal BMI: < 25
- mild obesity: class 1
- >20% over ideal body weight
- BMI: 30-35
- moderate obesity: class 2
- >40% over ideal body weight
- BMI: 35-40
- morbid obesity: class 3
- >100% over ideal body weight
- BMI: > 40
Etiology
- increased energy intake in excess of energy expenditure over a prolonged period of time
- idiopathic or essential obesity
- genetic factors*
- psychosocial factors
- cultural factors
- metabolic factors
- secondary causes of obesity
- endocrine disorders
- genetic disorders
- pharmaceutical agents
- viral infection - adenovirus-36
- other factors contributing to weight gain
- insulin therapy
- tricyclic antidepressant therapy
- smoking cessation
- sleep deprivation
- intestinal flora may play a role
- proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists & antibiotics in 1st 2 years of life increase risk[106]
- exposure to artificial light at night[108]
- maternal intake of ultraprocessed foods increases risk for pediatric obesity, but not specifically during pregnancy[115]
* genetic factors may account for tendency for obesity despite high levels of exercise[124]
Epidemiology
- nearly 40% of U.S. adults obese in 2015-2016[97]
- 24-25% of American males[20]
- 27-33% of non-pregnant American females[20]
- prevalence highest in adults 40-59 years of age[97]
- nearly 50% of Americans will be obese by 2030[109]
- in Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Oklahoma, & West Virginia prevalence of obesity will be 58% by 2030
- in no state will prevelance of obesity 2030 be below 35%[109]
- obesity most common among Hispanic & black adults (47%), followed by whites (38%), Asians (13%)[97]
- black women with highest obesity prevalence (55%)
- 17% of children & adolescents[85]; 20%[97]
- 13% of children in U.S.[95]
- 29% of U.S. children in 1999-2000 overweight or obese[102]
- 35% of U.S. children in 2015-2016 overweight or obese[102]
- no increase in U.S. children between 2007-2008 & 2015-2016[103]
- > 50% of obesity begins after childhood
- prevalence is increasing[8];
- women may be less likely than men to suffer complications from the same degree of obesity
- worldwide prevalence of overweight & obesity increased by 28% for adults & 47% for children from 1980-2013
- prevalence of adults with BMI of >=25 increased from 29% to 37% for men & 30% to 38% for women from 1980-2013[53]
- in 2015 12% of adults & 5% of children worldwide[95]
- 36% of obese girls & 48% of obese boys do not admit or realize they are overweight[56]
Pathology
- see proteins associated with obesity or lack of it
- ALL obese individuals have elevated, NOT depressed metabolic rates[6]
- Firmicutes (gut flora) may play role
- fat is stored predominantly in white adipocytes derived from adipose vasculature[26]
- health obesity is a myth[44]
Genetics
- also see Etiology: genetic disorders (above)
- MC4R gene mutation (most common)
- leptin gene mutation (rare)
- ob (leptin) receptor gene mutation (rare)
- POMC deficiency
- up-regulation of PID1 in fat of obese subjects
- the FTO allele rs1421085 T-to-C single-nucleotide variant disrupts a conserved motif for the ARID5B repressor, leading to derepression of a preadipocyte enhancer & overexpression of IRX3 & IRX5 skewing development of adipocytes more toward white fat, which store energy as fat, & less toward brown fat, which burn energy via their mitochondria[70]
- genetic factors can exacerbate effect of poor diet[50]
- other implicated genes ARHGAP23, ADRB3, DRD2, PPARG, UCP2, UCP3, SLC27A4, POMC, SCG3
- intestinal Christensenellaceae under genetic control
- Christensenellaceae appear to protect against obesity[59]
- > 2000 specific bacteriophages infecting gut bacteria are associated human chronic diseases, particularly Parkinson disease & obesity[110]
- many of the viral sequences are integrated into human chromosomal DNA or in circular episomes[110]
Clinical manifestations
- shortness of breath
- failure to lose weight
- fatigue
- daytime sleepiness
- weakness
- joint pain
- waist-to-hip circumference
- >1 in men & >0.8 in women indicates upper body obesity
- increase risk of cardiovascular complications
- waist circumference >= 102 cm (40 inches) in men & >= 88 cm (35 inches) in women increases risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease & mortality[3]
- pedal edema
- varicose veins
- hypertension
- body mass index > 30 kg/m2
- signs of Cushing's disease
- signs of hypothyroidism
Laboratory
- none required for diagnosis
- baseline testing prior to initiating dietary therapy
- complete blood count (CBC)
- blood glucose (all)[3], hemoglobin A1c
- serum electrolytes
- serum calcium
- serum magnesium
- serum uric acid
- liver function tests
- thyroid function tests
- testing for Cushing's syndrome if indicated
- fasting lipid profile (all) for assessment of metabolic syndrome[3]
- urinalysis may show proteinuria due to glomerular hyperfiltration[118]
- arterial blood gas for suspecte obesity hypoventilation syndrome
Diagnostic procedures
- electrocardiogram: check QT interval (QTc)
- polysomnography for suspected sleep apnea
Complications
(health risks of obesity)
- cardiovascular
- hypertension
- risk of hypertension in children going from overweight to obese (RR=2-3)[76]
- coronary artery disease (CAD)
- fatty streaks occur in men age 15-34[7]
- congestive heart failure (CHF)
- atrial fibrillation[3]
- stroke[3]
- increased cardiovascular risk indicators in overweight & obese children[37]
- increased cardiovascular risk in obese adolescents even in those that are fit, albeit less than those that are unfit[73]
- fit obese adolescents at higher cardiovascular risk than unfit normal weight adolescents[73]
- hypertension
- pulmonary[13]
- endocrine[13]
- diabetes mellitus type-2, insulin resistance syndrome
- 4-fold risk for type 2 diabetes in obese children & adolecents[93]
- hyperlipidemia
- diabetes mellitus type-2, insulin resistance syndrome
- gastrointestinal
- renal/urinary
- nephrolithiasis[14]
- focal & segmental glomerulonephropathy
- chronic renal failure
- increased risk for end-stage renal disease[38]
- increased risk of stress urinary incontinence[118]
- malignancy[3][23][24][57]
- large increases
- smaller increases in
- hematologic malignancies
- colorectal carcinoma
- obesity in adolescent males increases risk for colorectal cancer later in life[67]
- cervical cancer
- ovarian cancer
- post-menopausal breast cancer
- pancreatic cancer
- thyroid cancer
- stomach cancer & esophageal cancer in never smokers
- lower risk of
- increased risk of meningioma (RR=1.5)[71]
- increased risk for dermatologic conditions[74]
- other
- gout
- osteoarthritis
- varicose veins
- chronic venous insufficiency
- maternal obesity increases risk of preterm delivery[41] & birth defects[25]
- increased risk for cerebral palsy in offspring in women overweight or obese prior to pregnancy
- liver disease[3]
- increased mortality[22] (RR=1.9 for men 50-71, BMI= 35-40)
- no increase in mortality in the elderly[52][54]
- prognosis in Management: section below
- longevity diminished by ~6 years due to increased mortality from diabetes mellitus & cardiovascular disease[60]
- higher adiposity associated with higher mortality after adjustment for BMI[77]
- no increase in mortality in the elderly[52][54]
- children who are overweight or obese, then became nonobese as adults have similar risks as those who were never obese[31]
- effect of increased incidence of obesity has not increased overall disability & mortality[95]
- obesity & overweight implicated in 7% of deaths from any cause, mostly cardiovascular[95]
- increased risk of mental health disorder[3]
- disease interaction(s) of obesity with asthma
- disease interaction(s) of obesity with chronic hypertension
- disease interaction(s) of obesity with gesational diabetes
- disease interaction(s) of multiple sclerosis with obesity
- disease interaction(s) of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with obesity
Management
- behavioral interventions first line (USPSTF)[101]
- for patients with a BMI of 30 or higher, clinicians should provide intensive, multicomponent behavioral interventions or refer patients to such a program[35]
- avoid activities associated with overeating, i.e. watching televison
- keeping a record of eating may be helpful
- meal planning is advisable
- require patient to get up & get food for himself/herself
- don't bring food to (serve) the patient
- keep food in another room
- getting up to get food includes second helpings
- behavioral interventions focused on food intake & physical activity, with or without orlistat, are effective in slowing weight regain[55]
- structured behavioral interventions for obese children[66]
- a 30-second intervention with obese patients during primary care] visits proved effective in promoting weight loss[90]
- advice on advantages of losing weight
- enrollment in a behavioral support group
- total weight loss of 10% is a reasonable initial goal[3]
- diet therapy
- primary mode of therapy
- begin with 1200 kcal/day
- very low calorie diet
- diet alone without restricted access to food is unlikely to produce sustained weight reduction
- most men lose weight on < 1300 kcal/day
- most women lose weight on < 1000 kcal/day
- a negative energy balance of 500 kCals/day is associated with weight reduction of 0.7 kg (1.1 pound) per week[2]
- limit dietary sugars to < 5% of total energy intake[64]
- stop high-fructose corn syrup-containing carbonated beverages[12]
- industry-funded research is 5x more likely to report no relation between sugar-sweetened beverages & obesity than industry-independent work[63]
- diet & excercise better than either alone[28]
- weight gain associated with potatoes, sugar-sweetened beverages & meat[29]
- weight reduction associated with vegetables, whole grains, fruits, nuts, yogurt[29]
- fruits & vegetables without reduction in calorie intake is not associated with weight reduction[39]
- no specific diet has proven superior to others in achieving long-term weight loss[3]
- isocaloric substitution of sucrose with starch leads to short-term (10-day) improvements in metabolic markers in obese children (serum glucose, mean arterial pressure, serum insulin, body mass index)[72]
- low fat weight loss diet may reduce premature all cause mortality[99]
- DASH diet decreases BMI in individuals at high genetic risk for obesity[100]
- exercise
- regular exercise program is an important part of weight-reduction program
- brisk walking (moderate-intensity aerobic exercise) >= 30 minutes 5 days/week (minimum recommended activity for older adults)[2][88]
- benefits of aerobic exercise
- increases lean body mass
- increases glucose tolerance
- decreases blood pressure
- decreases risk of cardiovascular disease
- utilizes calories
- home exercise equipment may facilitate weight reduction[2]
- non-exercise activity thermogenesis more closely[15] associated with body weight than vigorous exercise
- exercise has health benefits independent of weight reduction[39]
- regular exercise program is an important part of weight-reduction program
- evidence for benefit of diet plus exercise (but not diet alone) in the elderly[52]
- calorie restriction associated with loss of muscle mass in obese elderly[52]; also loss of adipose tissue; outcomes not considered
- weight loss plus combined aerobic exercise & resistance exercise is the most effective in improving functional status of obese older adults[95]
- pharmaceutical agents (also see weight reduction)
- indications
- at least 5% weight loss should be achieved after 3 months, otherwise agent should be discontinued[61]
- American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) recommends
- semaglutide, liraglutide[3][116]
- drug of choice, despite no diabetes + irritable bowel syndrome IBS-D[120]
- tirzepatide (Mounjaro) 15 mg SC once weekly[114]
- reduces blood pressure & weight within 9 months[122]
- phentermine/topiramate extended-release (Qsymia)
- phentermine/topiramate (15 mg/92 mg) for 1 year lowers BMI 10%[113] - contraindications: hypertension, nephrolithiasis[120]
- sustained-release naltrexone/bupropion ER[79][116]
- insomnia is an adverse effect, thus relative contraindication[120]
- semaglutide, liraglutide[3][116]
- orlistat (Xenical) only FDA-approved agent for adolescents
- others not receiving AGA endorsement for adults
- sibutramine (Meridia)
- rimonabant
- metformin may contribute to weight reduction even in nondiabetic children, but clinical significance unknown[48]
- incretin mimetic or glysouric agent should be considered as an adjunct to metformin[61]
- other agents not recommended due to dependence potential & high incidence of adverse effects
- bariatric surgery
- indications:[3]
- BMI > 40
- BMI > 35 with serious obesity-related comorbidities
- gastric banding vs gastroplasty[11]
- Roux-en-Y gastric bypass[4]
- intestinal bypass is no longer performed due to high incidence of complications
- bariatric surgery produces best long-term results[21]
- reduces blood pressure & weight[123]
- most effective strategy for adolescents[42]
- not recommended for children[66]
- avoid intragastric balloon system
- indications:[3]
- vagal nerve blockade
- benefit to risk ratio unfavorable[58]
- follow-up
- majority of patients regain lost weight
- non-compliance with diet & exercise programs are common
- prognosis
- obesity (BMI > 30 kg/m2) associated with diminished life-expectancy of 6-7 years[9][10]
- even a modest weight reduction (5-15%) may lead to significant improvement in medical problems in the elderly
- no evidence that weight reduction will improve mortality[52][111]
- few obese adults will achieve a normal weight[69]
- failure of resting metabolic rate to rise with body weight, after weight reduction makes regaining weight easier & losing weight harder[84]
- patients with weight loss after bariatric surgery do not appear to suffer this failure[84]
- prevention
- breast-feeding should be encouraged[68]
- limit television & screen time[68]
- limit to 2 hours a day in children >= 2years
- none for infants & children < 2 years of age
- televisions should be restricted from children's bedrooms & the kitchen[68]
- children & adolescents whose mothers follow a healthy lifestyle are less likely to become obese[104]
- structured behavioral interventions for prevention of obesity in children not indicated[66]
- removal of sweet drinks & addition of easily accessible water in schools may help mitigate the obesity epidemic[75]
- early bedtime for preschool children may reduce adolescent obesity[87]
Comparative biology
- nanoparticles containing either rosiglitazone or a PGE2 analogue adhere selectively to endothelium within white fat of obese mice, stimulate angiogenesis, transforming white fat into brown fat, inhibiting weight gain, & improving plasma cholesterol, plasma triglycerides, & plasma insulin[86]
Notes
- ref[62] presents patient's perspective on obesity & weight reduction counseling
More general terms
Additional terms
- bariatric surgery
- body mass index (BMI)
- ideal body weight (IBW)
- management of obesity: ACP clinical guidelines, 2005
- obesity syndrome; disorders associated with obesity
- proteins associated with obesity or lack of it
- weight reduction; intentional weight loss; excess weight reduction
References
- ↑ Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 693-95
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Journal Watch, Mass Med Soc 19(23):187 (Dec) 1999
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2022.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ 4.0 4.1 Journal Watch, Mass Med Soc 20(17):138 (Sept) 2000 Balsiger BM et al Prospective evaluation of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass as primary operation for medically complicated obesity. Mayo Clin Proc 75:673, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10907381
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Journal Watch, Mass Med Soc 20(18):143 (Sept) 2000 Wiesner et al Adjustable laparoscopic gastric banding in patients with morbid obesity: radiographic management, results, and postoperative complications. Radiology 216:389, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924559
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th ed. Fauci et al (eds), McGraw-Hill Inc. NY, 1998, pg 244
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Journal Watch 22(16):126, 2002 McGill HC et al Obesity accelerates the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in young men. Circulation 105:2712, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12057983
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Journal Watch 22(23):176, 2002 Flegal KM et al Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA 288:1723, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12365955
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Journal Watch 23(4):29, 2003 Peeters A et al Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: a life-table analysis. Ann Intern Med 138:24, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12513041
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Journal Watch 24(2):18, 2004
US Preventive Services Task Force, Screening for obesity in adults: recommendations and rationale. Ann Intern Med 139:930, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14644896 McTigue KM, Harris R, Hemphill B et al Screening and interventions for obesity in adults: summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 139:933, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14644897 - ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Journal Watch 24(2):19, 2004 Morino M et al Laparoscopic adjustable silicone gastric banding versus vertical banded gastroplasty in morbidly obese patients: a prospective randomized controlled clinical trial. Ann Surg 238:835, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14631220
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Journal Watch 24(14):114, 2004 James J, Thomas P, Cavan D, Kerr D. Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2004 May 22;328(7450):1237. Epub 2004 Apr 23. Erratum in: BMJ. 2004 May 22;328(7450):1236. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15107313 <Internet> http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7450/1237
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Journal Watch 24(15):122-123, 2004 Gidding SS, Nehgme R, Heise C, Muscar C, Linton A, Hassink S. Severe obesity associated with cardiovascular deconditioning, high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, diabetes mellitus/hyperinsulinemia, and respiratory compromise. J Pediatr. 2004 Jun;144(6):766-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15192624
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Journal Watch 25(6):50, 2005 Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA. 2005 Jan 26;293(4):455-62. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15671430
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Journal Watch 25(6):50, 2005 Levine JA, Lanningham-Foster LM, McCrady SK, Krizan AC, Olson LR, Kane PH, Jensen MD, Clark MM. Interindividual variation in posture allocation: possible role in human obesity. Science. 2005 Jan 28;307(5709):584-6. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15681386
- ↑ Journal Watch 25(10):82, 2005 Snow V, Barry P, Fitterman N, Qaseem A, Weiss K Clinical Efficacy Assessment Subcommittee of the American College of Physicians. Pharmacologic and surgical management of obesity in primary care: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5;142(7):525-31. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15809464
Li Z, Maglione M, Tu W, Mojica W, Arterburn D, Shugarman LR, Hilton L, Suttorp M, Solomon V, Shekelle PG, Morton SC. Meta-analysis: pharmacologic treatment of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5;142(7):532-46. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5;142(7):I55. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15809465
Maggard MA, Shugarman LR, Suttorp M, Maglione M, Sugarman HJ, Livingston EH, Nguyen NT, Li Z, Mojica WA, Hilton L, Rhodes S, Morton SC, Shekelle PG. Meta-analysis: surgical treatment of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5;142(7):547-59. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5;142(7):I55. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15809466 - ↑ Assessment and Treatment of Obesity and Overweight in Adults http://www.guideline.gov/Compare/comparison.aspx?file=OBESITY2_adult.inc
- ↑ Daniels SR, Arnett DK, Eckel RH, Gidding SS, Hayman LL, Kumanyika S, Robinson TN, Scott BJ, St Jeor S, Williams CL. Overweight in children and adolescents: pathophysiology, consequences, prevention, and treatment. Circulation. 2005 Apr 19;111(15):1999-2012. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15837955 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/111/15/1999
- ↑ Baker S, Barlow S, Cochran W, Fuchs G, Klish W, Krebs N, Strauss R, Tershakovec A, Udall J. Overweight children and adolescents: a clinical report of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005 May;40(5):533-43. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15861011 <Internet> http://www.naspghan.org/PDF/PositionPapers/2005-06-13_OverweightChildrenAdolescents.pdf
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Vasan RS, Pencina MJ, Cobain M, Freiberg MS, D'Agostino RB. Estimated risks for developing obesity in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Oct 4;143(7):473-80. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2005 Oct 4;143(7):I12. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16204159
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 O'Brien PE et al, Treatment of mild to moderate obesity with laparascopic adjustable gastric banding or an intensive medical program: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144:625 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16670131
Wadden TA & Tsai AG Bariatric surgery: Crossing a body mass index threshold. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144:689 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16670139 - ↑ 22.0 22.1 Adams KF et al, Overweight, obesity, and mortality in a large prospective cohort of persons aged 50-71 years old. N Engl J Med 2006, 355:763 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16926275
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Reeves GK et al, Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: Cohort Study. BMJ 2007, 335:1134 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17986716
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Renehan AG et al, Body mass index and incidence of cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Lancet 2008, 371:569 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18280327
Larsson SC and Wolk A Excess body fatness: An important cause of most cancers. Lancet 2008, 371:536 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18280312 - ↑ 25.0 25.1 Waller DK, Shaw GM, Rasmussen SA, Hobbs CA, Canfield MA, Siega-Riz AM, Gallaway MS, Correa A; National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Prepregnancy obesity as a risk factor for structural birth defects. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007 Aug;161(8):745-50. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17679655
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Tang W et al White fat progenitor cells reside in the adipose vasculature. Science. 2008 Oct 24;322(5901):583-6. Epub 2008 Sep 18. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18801968
- ↑ Gabbert C et al Adenovirus 36 and Obesity in Children and Adolescents Pediatrics published online September 20, 2010 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20855385 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/peds.2009-3362v1
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Villareal DT et al. Weight loss, exercise, or both and physical function in obese older adults. N Engl J Med 2011 Mar 31; 364:1218. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21449785
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Mozaffarian D et al Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men N Engl J Med 2011; 364:2392-2404 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21696306 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1014296
- ↑ Wadden TA et al A Two-Year Randomized Trial of Obesity Treatment in Primary Care Practice N Engl J Med November 14, 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22082239 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1109220
Appel LJ et al Comparative Effectiveness of Weight-Loss Interventions in Clinical Practice N Engl J Med November 14, 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22085317 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1108660
Yanovski SZ Obesity Treatment in Primary Care - Are We There Yet? N Engl J Med November 14, 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22085319 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1111487 - ↑ 31.0 31.1 Juonala M et al Childhood Adiposity, Adult Adiposity, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors N Engl J Med 2011; 365:1876-1885 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22087679 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1010112
Rocchin AP Childhood Obesity and Coronary Heart Disease N Engl J Med 2011; 365:1927-1929 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22087684 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1110898 - ↑ 32.0 32.1 Physician's First Watch Massachusetts Medical Society, May 8, 2012
CDC Weight of the Nation Press Briefing Monday, May 7, 2012 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2012/t0507_weight_nation.html
Neergaard L 20-year forecast shows no end to obesity epidemic Associated Press, May 7, 2012 http://news.yahoo.com/20-forecast-shows-no-end-obesity-epidemic-161049461.html
F as in Fat How Obesity Threatens America's Future http://www.rwjf.org/content/dam/farm/reports/reports/2012/rwjf401318 - ↑ Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation Institute of Medicine 2012 https://download.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13275
- ↑ Management of overweight and obesity (VHA/DoD) http://www.oqp.med.va.gov/cpg/OBE/OBE_base.htm
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Moyer VA et al Screening for and Management of Obesity in Adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement Ann Intern Med. 26 June 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22733087 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1200996 (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Feb 2018)
Moyer VA et al Behavioral Counseling Interventions to Promote a Healthful Diet and Physical Activity for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement Ann Intern Med. 26 June 2012 http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1200998 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 Qi Q et al Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Genetic Risk of Obesity N Engl J Med Sept 21 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22998338 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1203039
de Ruyter JC et al A Trial of Sugar-free or Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Body Weight in Children N Engl J Med Sept 21 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22998340 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1203034
Ebbeling CB et al A Randomized Trial of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Adolescent Body Weight N Engl J Med Sept 21 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22998339 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1203388
Caprio S Calories from Soft Drinks - Do They Matter? N Engl J Med Sept 21 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22998339 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1209884 - ↑ 37.0 37.1 Friedemann C et al Cardiovascular disease risk in healthy children and its association with body mass index: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2012;345:e4759 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23015032 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4759
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Hsu C-Y et al. Body mass index and risk for end-stage renal disease. Ann Intern Med 2006 Jan 3; 144:21-8 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16389251
Vivante A et al Body Mass Index in 1.2 Million Adolescents and Risk for End-Stage Renal Disease Arch Intern Med. 2012; Oct 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23108588 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1387591
Johansen KL The Skinny on Obesity and End-Stage Renal Disease Comment on "Body Mass Index in 1.2 Million Adolescents and Risk for End-Stage Renal Disease" Arch Intern Med. 2012; Oct 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23108610 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1387592 - ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Casazza K et al Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity. N Engl J Med 2013; 368:446-454January 31, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23363498 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1208051
- ↑ Beavers KM, Miller ME, Rejeski WJ, et al. Fat mass loss predicts gain in physical function with intentional weight loss in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2012 Jan;68(1):80-6 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22503993
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Cnattingius S et al Maternal Obesity and Risk of Preterm Delivery. JAMA. 2013;309(22):2362-2370 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23757084 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1696099
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Kelly AS et al Severe Obesity in Children and Adolescents: Identification, Associated Health Risks, and Treatment Approaches: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. September 9, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24016455 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/09/09/CIR.0b013e3182a5cfb3.full.pdf
- ↑ Jensen MD et al 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS Guideline for the Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Associatation Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Obesity Society. Circulation. Nov 12, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24222017 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/11/11/01.cir.0000437739.71477.ee
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Kramer CK et al Are Metabolically Healthy Overweight and Obesity Benign Conditions?: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(11):758-769 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297192 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1784291
Hill JO and Wyatt HR The Myth of Healthy Obesity. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(11):789-790 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297199 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1784298 - ↑ Lang IA, Llewellyn DJ, Alexander K, Melzer D. Obesity, physical function, and mortality in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008 Aug;56(8):1474-8 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18662211
- ↑ Leblanc ES, O'Connor E, Whitlock EP, Patnode CD, Kapka T. Effectiveness of primary care-relevant treatments for obesity in adults: a systematic evidence review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Oct 4;155(7):434-47 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21969342
- ↑ Silk AW, McTigue KM. Reexamining the physical examination for obese patients. JAMA. 2011 Jan 12;305(2):193-4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21191004
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 McDonagh MS et al Systematic Review of the Benefits and Risks of Metformin in Treating Obesity in Children Aged 18 Years and Younger. JAMA Pediatr. Published online December 16, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24343296 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1789760
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Ogden CL et al. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. JAMA 2014 Feb 26; 311:806. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24570244
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Qi O et al Fried food consumption, genetic risk, and body mass index: gene-diet interaction analysis in three US cohort studies. BMJ 2014;348:g1610 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24646652 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g1610
Blakemore AIF and Buxto JL Obesity, genetic risk, and environment. BMJ 2014;348:g1900 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24646763 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g1900 - ↑ Frimel TN, Sinacore DR, Villareal DT. Exercise attenuates the weight-loss-induced reduction in muscle mass in frail obese older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008 Jul;40(7):1213-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18580399
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 11th edition (GRS11) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2022 - ↑ 53.0 53.1 Ng M et al Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 29 May 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24880830 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2960460-8/abstract
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Oreopoulos A, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Sharma AM, Fonarow GC. The obesity paradox in the elderly: potential mechanisms and clinical implications. Clin Geriatr Med. 2009 Nov;25(4):643-59, viii. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19944265
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 Dombrowski SU et al. Long term maintenance of weight loss with non-surgical interventions in obese adults: Systematic review and meta- analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2014;348:g2646 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25134100 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g2646
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Sarafrazi N et al Perception of Weight Status in U.S. Children and Adolescents Aged 8-15 Years, 2005-2012 NCHS Data Brief, No. 158. July 2014 http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db158.pdf
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Bhaskaran K et al Body-mass index and risk of 22 specific cancers: a population- based cohort study of 5 24 million UK adults. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 14 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25129328 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2960892-8/abstract
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Ikramuddin S et al. Effect of reversible intermittent intra-abdominal vagal nerve blockade on morbid obesity: The ReCharge randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014 Sep 3; 312:915 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25182100 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1900511
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 Goodrich JK et al. Human genetics shape the gut microbiome. Cell 2014 Nov 6; 159:789 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25417156
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Grover SA et al Years of life lost and healthy life-years lost from diabetes and cardiovascular disease in overweight and obese people: a modelling study. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. December 5, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25483220 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587%2814%2970229-3/abstract
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Apovian CM et al Pharmacological Management of Obesity: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Jan 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25590212 <Internet> http://press.endocrine.org/doi/pdf/10.1210/jc.2014-3415
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Lewis E Why there's no point telling me to lose weight. BMJ 2015;350:g6845 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25603805 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.g6845
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 Gornall J Sugar: spinning a web of influence BMJ 2015;350:h231 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25673325 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h231
Gornall J Sugar's web of influence 2: Biasing the science. BMJ 2015;350:h215 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25673131 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h215
Gornall J Sugar's web of influence 3: Why the responsibility deal is a "dead duck" for sugar reduction. BMJ 2015;350:h219 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25672995 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h219
Jonathan Gornall Sugar's web of influence 4: Mars and company: sweet heroes or villains? BMJ 2015;350:h220 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25673663 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h220 - ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Ross R, Hudson R, Stotz PJ, Lam M Effects of Exercise Amount and Intensity on Abdominal Obesity and Glucose Tolerance in Obese Adults: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162(5):325-334. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25732273 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2173500
- ↑ World Health Organization (WHO) WHO opens public consultation on draft sugars guideline. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2014/consultation-sugar-guideline/en/
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 66.4 Young Y, Fairchild DG, Hefner JE Canadian Group Offers Guidelines on Managing Childhood Obesity in Primary Care. Physician's First Watch, March 31, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 Kantor ED et al Adolescent body mass index and erythrocyte sedimentation rate in relation to colorectal cancer risk. Gut. May 18, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25986947 <Internet> http://gut.bmj.com/content/early/2015/04/28/gutjnl-2014-309007.abstract
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 Daniels SR, Hassink SG The Role of the Pediatrician in Primary Prevention of Obesity. Prediatrics. June 29, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26122812 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/06/23/peds.2015-1558
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Fildes A, Charlton J, Rudisill C et al Probability of an Obese Person Attaining Normal Body Weight: Cohort Study Using Electronic Health Records. Am J Public Health. Published Online. July 16, 2015: e1-e6. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26180980 <Internet> http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302773
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Claussnitzer M et al FTO Obesity Variant Circuitry and Adipocyte Browning in Humans. N Engl J Med. 2015 Aug 19. [Epub ahead of print] <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26287746 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1502214
Rosen CJ, Ingelfinger JR. Unraveling the Function of FTO Variants. N Engl J Med. 2015 Aug 19. [Epub ahead of print] <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26287747 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1508683 - ↑ 71.0 71.1 Niedermaier T et al Body mass index, physical activity, and risk of adult meningioma and glioma. Neurology. September 16, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26377253 <Internet> http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2015/09/16/WNL.0000000000002020
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Lustig RH, Mulligan K, Noworolski SM et al Isocaloric Fructose Restriction and Metabolic Improvement in Children with Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. Obesity. Oct 2015 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26499447
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Hogstrom G, Nordstrom A, Nordstrom P Aerobic fitness in late adolescence and the risk of early death: a prospective cohort study of 1.3 million Swedish men. Int. J. Epidemiol. (2015) Dec 20, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26686843 <Internet> http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/12/20/ije.dyv321.abstract
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 Yosipovitch G, DeVore A, Dawn A Obesity and the skin: skin physiology and skin manifestations of obesity. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007 Jun;56(6):901-16 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17504714
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 Schwartz AE et al. Effect of a school-based water intervention on child body mass index and obesity. JAMA Pediatr 2016 Jan 19 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26784336
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 Judge C, Hefner JE, Chavey WE Kids Who Go from Overweight to Obese Might Quickly See Increase in Blood Pressure. Physician's First Watch, Feb 19, 2016 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org Reference to Pediatrics article. Access denied.
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 Padwal R, Leslie WD, Lix LM, Majumdar SR. Relationship among body fat percentage, body mass index, and all-cause mortality: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2016 Mar 8; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26954388
- ↑ Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Long-term drug treatment for obesity: a systematic and clinical review. JAMA. 2014 Jan 1;311(1):74-86. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24231879 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 Greenway FL, Fujioka K, Plodkowski RA et al Effect of naltrexone plus bupropion on weight loss in overweight and obese adults (COR-I): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2010 Aug 21;376(9741):595-605. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20673995
- ↑ Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC. Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight: updated meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007 Dec 8;335(7631):1194-9. Epub 2007 Nov 15. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18006966 Free PMC Article
- ↑ Shyh G, Cheng-Lai A. New antiobesity agents: lorcaserin (Belviq) and phentermine/ topiramate ER (Qsymia). Cardiol Rev. 2014 Jan-Feb;22(1):43-50. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24304809
- ↑ Thompson WG, Cook DA, Clark MM, Bardia A, Levine JA. Treatment of obesity. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007 Jan;82(1):93-101; quiz 101-2. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17285790
- ↑ Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM et al 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 1;63(25 Pt B):2985-3023. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239920 Free Article
- ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 Fothergill E et al. Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after "The Biggest Loser" competition. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2016 May 2 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27136388
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 Ogden CL et al Trends in Obesity Prevalence Among Children and Adolescents in the United States, 1988-1994 Through 2013-2014. JAMA. 2016;315(21):2292-2299 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27272581 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2526638
Zylke JW, Bauchner H The Unrelenting Challenge of Obesity. JAMA. 2016;315(21):2277-2278 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27272578 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2526613 - ↑ 86.0 86.1 Xue Y, Xu X, Zhang XQ, Farokhzad OC, Langer R. Preventing diet-induced obesity in mice by adipose tissue transformation and angiogenesis using targeted nanoparticles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016 May 17; 113:5552 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27140638
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Anderson SE, Andridge R, Whitaker RC. Bedtime in Preschool-Aged Children and Risk for Adolescent Obesity. The Journal of Pediatrics. July 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27426836 <Internet> http://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476(16)30361-4/fulltext
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society,
- ↑ Rejeski WJ, Brubaker PH, Goff DC Jr et al Translating weight loss and physical activity programs into the community to preserve mobility in older, obese adults in poor cardiovascular health. Arch Intern Med. 2011 May 23;171(10):880-6. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21263080 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 Aveyard P, Lewis A, Tearne S et al Screening and brief intervention for obesity in primary care: a parallel, two-arm, randomised trial. Lancet. Oct 24, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27789061 Free Article <Internet> http://thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31893-1/fulltext
Swinburn B, Arroll B Rethinking primary care systems for obesity. Lancet. Oct 24, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27789060 Free Article <Internet> http://thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31913-4/fulltext - ↑ Heymsfield SB, Wadden TA Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Management of Obesity. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:254-266. January 19, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28099824 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1514009
- ↑ Styne DM, Arslanian SA, Connor EL et al Pediatric Obesity - Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab Jan 31, 2017 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28359099 https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-lookup/doi/10.1210/jc.2016-2573
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Abbasi A et al Body Mass Index and Incident Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A Retrospective Cohort Study. J. Endocr. Soc. js.2017-00044. April 25, 2017 Not indexed in PubMed https://academic.oup.com/jes/article-lookup/doi/10.1210/js.2017-00044
- ↑ Villareal DT, Aguirre L, Gurney AB et al Aerobic or Resistance Exercise, or Both, in Dieting Obese Older Adults. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:1943-1955. May 18, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28514618 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1616338?query=aging-geriatrics
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 95.3 95.4 95.5 The GBD 2015 Obesity Collaborators Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years. N Engl J Med 2017. June 12. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604169 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1614362
Gregg EW, Shaw JE Global Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity. N Engl J Med 2017. June 12. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604226 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1706095 - ↑ Committee on Adolescent Health Care American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Obesity in Adolescents ACOG Committee Opinion Number 714, September 2017 https://www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Adolescent-Health-Care/Obesity-in-Adolescents
- ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 97.4 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults and Youth: United States, 2015-2016. NCHS Data Brief No. 288, October 2017 https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db288.htm
- ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 Ward ZJ, Long MW, Resch SC et al. Simulation of growth trajectories of childhood obesity into adulthood. N Engl J Med 2017 Nov 30; 377:2145-2153 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29171811 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1703860
- ↑ 99.0 99.1 Ma C, Avenell A, Bolland M et al. Effects of weight loss interventions for adults who are obese on mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2017 Nov 14; 359:j4849. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29138133 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 100.0 100.1 Wang T, Heianza Y, Sun D et al Improving adherence to healthy dietary patterns, genetic risk, and long term weight gain: gene-diet interaction analysis in two prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2018;360:j5644 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29321156 Free full text <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/360/bmj.j5644
Ells LJ, Demaio A, Farpour-Lambert N. Diet, genes, and obesity. BMJ 2018;360:k7 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29321151 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/360/bmj.k7 - ↑ 101.0 101.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) Draft Recommendation Statement. Weight Loss to Prevent Obesity-Related Morbidity and Mortality in Adults: Behavioral Interventions https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/obesity-in-adults-interventions1
Draft Evidence Review (USPSTF) Draft Evidence Review for Weight Loss to Prevent Obesity- Related Morbidity and Mortality in Adults: Behavioral Interventions https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/obesity-in-adults-interventions1
US Preventive Services Task Force Behavioral Weight Loss Interventions to Prevent Obesity-Related Morbidity and Mortality in AdultsUS Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;320(11):1163-1171. Sept 18, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30326502 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2702878
LeBlanc ES, Patnode CD, Webber EM et al Behavioral and Pharmacotherapy Weight Loss Interventions to Prevent Obesity-Related Morbidity and Mortality in AdultsUpdated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2018;320(11):1172-1191. Sept 18, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30326501 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2702877
Yanovski SZ Weight Management in Adults With Obesity. What Is a Primary Care Clinician to Do? JAMA. 2018;320(11):1111-1113. Sept 18, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30422282 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2702851 - ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Skinner AC, Ravanbakht SN, Skelton JA et al Prevalence of Obesity and Severe Obesity in US Children, 1999-2016 Pediatrics. February 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29483202 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/02/22/peds.2017-3459
Ludwig DS Epidemic Childhood Obesity: Not Yet the End of the Beginning. Pediatrics. February 2018. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29483198 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/02/22/peds.2017-4078 - ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Hales CM, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, et al Trends in Obesity and Severe Obesity Prevalence in US Youth and Adults by Sex and Age, 2007-2008 to 2015-2016. JAMA. Published online March 23, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29570750 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2676543
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 Dhana K, Haines J, Liu G et al Association between maternal adherence to healthy lifestyle practices and risk of obesity in offspring: results from two prospective cohort studies of mother-child pairs in the United States. BMJ 2018;362:k2486 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29973352 https://www.bmj.com/content/362/bmj.k2486
- ↑ 105.0 105.1 Astbury NM et al. Doctor Referral of Overweight People to Low Energy Total Diet Replacement Treatment (DROPLET): Pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2018 Sep 26; 362:k3760 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30257983 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 106.0 106.1 Stark CM, Susi A, Emerick J, Nylund CM Antibiotic and acid-suppression medications during early childhood are associated with obesity. Gut microbiota. 2018 ePub Oct. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30377188 https://gut.bmj.com/content/early/2018/09/18/gutjnl-2017-314971
Block JP, Bailey LC, Gillman MW et al Early Antibiotic Exposure and Weight Outcomes in Young Children. Pediatrics. October 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30381474 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/10/29/peds.2018-0290
Saari A, Sankilampi U. Is there a causal link between antibiotic exposure during infancy and risk for obesity? Pediatrics 2018 Oct 31. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30381475 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/10/29/peds.2018-2692 - ↑ Choung HG et al. The spectrum of kidney biopsy findings in patients with morbid obesity. Kidney Int 2019 Mar; 95:647-654 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30712921 https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(18)30907-4/fulltext
- ↑ 108.0 108.1 Park YMM, White AJ, Jackson CL et al. Association of exposure to artificial light at night while sleeping with risk of obesity in women. JAMA Intern Med 2019 Jun 10 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31180469 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2735446
- ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Ward ZJ et al Projected U.S. State-Level Prevalence of Adult Obesity and Severe Obesity. N Engl J Med 2019; 381:2440-2450. Dec 19 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31851800 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1909301
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 Tisza MJ, Buck CB. A catalog of tens of thousands of viruses from human metagenomes reveals hidden associations with chronic diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021 Jun 8; 118:e2023202118. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34083435 PMCID: PMC8201803 Free PMC article https://www.pnas.org/content/118/23/e2023202118
- ↑ 111.0 111.1 LeBlanc ES, Patnode CD, Webber EM, Redmond N, Rushkin M, O'Connor EA. Behavioral and Pharmacotherapy Weight Loss Interventions to Prevent Obesity- Related Morbidity and Mortality in Adults: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2018 Sep 18;320(11):1172-1191. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30326501 Review.
- ↑ Khan SS, Ning H, Wilkins JT et al. Association of body mass index with lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease and compression of morbidity. JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(4):280-287 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29490333 PMCID: PMC5875319 Free PMC article
- ↑ 113.0 113.1 Kelly AS et al. Phentermine/topiramate for the treatment of adolescent obesity. NEJM Evid 2022 Apr 30; 1:EVIDoa2200014 Not indexed in PubMed https://evidence.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/EVIDoa2200014
- ↑ 114.0 114.1 Zoler ML Tirzepatide Powers 'Unprecedented' Weight Loss in Obesity Trial. Medcape. June 4, 2022 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/975061
Monaco K Tirzepatide Serves Up Major Weight-Loss Win in Patients With Obesity. SURMOUNT-1 trial tested GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist in people without diabetes. MedPage Today June 5, 2022 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/ada/99060 - ↑ 115.0 115.1 Wang Y et al. Maternal consumption of ultra-processed foods and subsequent risk of offspring overweight or obesity: Results from three prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2022 Oct 5; 379:e071767 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36198411 PMCID: PMC9533299 Free PMC article https://www.bmj.com/content/379/bmj-2022-071767
- ↑ 116.0 116.1 116.2 116.3 Haelle T AGA Releases Guidelines on Anti-Obesity Medications for Weight Management. Medscape. October 21, 2022 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/982851
Grunval E, Shah R, Hernaez R et al AGA Clinical Practice Guideline on Pharmacological Interventions for Adults With Obesity. Gastroenterology. 2022 163(5):1198-1225. November 2022 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36273831 https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(22)01026-5/fulltext - ↑ Fairbrother U, Kidd E, Malagamuwa T, Walley A. Genetics of Severe Obesity. Curr Diab Rep. 2018 Aug 18;18(10):85. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30121879 PMCID: PMC6105241 Free PMC article Review.
- ↑ 118.0 118.1 118.2 NEJM Knowledge+ Nephrology/Urology
- ↑ Tsai AG, Bessesen DH. Obesity. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:ITC33-48. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30831593
- ↑ 120.0 120.1 120.2 120.3 Khera R, Murad MH, Chandar AK et al. Association of pharmacological treatments for obesity with weight loss and adverse events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2016 Jun 14; 315:2424 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27299618
- ↑ Elmaleh-Sachs A, Schwartz JL, Bramante CT et al Obesity Management in Adults. JAMA. 2023;330(20):2000-2015 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38015216 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2812316
- ↑ 122.0 122.1 de Lemos JA, Linetzky B, le Roux CW et al Tirzepatide Reduces 24-Hour Ambulatory Blood Pressure in Adults With Body Mass Index >= 27 kg/m2: SURMOUNT-1 Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring Substudy. Hypertension. 2024 Feb 5. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38314555
- ↑ 123.0 123.1 Schiavon CA et al Randomized Trial of Effect of Bariatric Surgery on Blood Pressure After 5 Years. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024 Feb, 83 (6) 637-648 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38325988 Clinical Trial. https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jacc.2023.11.032
- ↑ 124.0 124.1 Brittain EL et al. Physical activity and incident obesity across the spectrum of genetic risk for obesity. JAMA Netw Open 2024 Mar; 7:e243821 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38536175 PMCID: PMC10973894 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2816822
- ↑ Adult Obesity Facts Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html