diabetes mellitus
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Introduction
also see diabetes in the elderly
Classification
- type 1 diabetes: insulin deficiency
- type 2 diabetes: insulin resistance
- gestational diabetes: insulin resistance
- other types
- genetic defects in beta cell function
- MODY syndrome
- young person with strong family history & lean body type
- no acanthosis nigricans or features of Cushings syndrome
- normal C-peptide
- MODY syndrome
- genetic defects in insulin action
- type A insulin resistance
- Leprechaunism
- Rabon-Mendenhall syndrome
- lipoatrophic diabetes
- diseases of the exocrine pancreas
- pancreatitis
- pancreatic cancer
- cystic fibrosis
- hemochromatosis
- fibrocalculous pancreatopathy
- endocrinopathies
- drug-induced or chemically-induced
- corticosteroids
- niacin
- diazoxide
- chlorthalidone
- encainide
- ethacrynic acid
- furosemide
- growth hormone
- oral contraceptives
- thiazides
- pentamidine
- phenytoin
- interferon-alfa
- beta-adrenergic agonists
- thyroxine
- cyclosporine
- tacrolimus
- antiretroviral protease inhibitors
- atypical antipsychotics (olanzapine, clozapine)
- Vacor (rat poison)
- infections
- rare forms of immune-mediated diabetes mellitus
- other genetic syndromes associated with diabetes mellitus
- Down syndrome
- Turner syndrome
- Klinefelter syndrome
- Prader-Willi syndrome
- Lawrence-Moon-Biedl syndrome
- myotonic dystrophy
- Huntington chorea[1]
- Wolfram syndrome
- genetic defects in beta cell function
- 5 clusters of adult-onset diabetes mellitus proposed[36]
- cluster 1 (6%)
- severe autoimmune diabetes (formerly type 1 diabetes)
- early-onset disease, relatively low BMI, & GADA-positive
- cluster 2 (18%)
- cluster 3 (15%)
- cluster 4 (22%)
- cluster 5 (39%)
- mild age-related diabetes
- older than other clusters, but largely similar to cluster 4
- cluster 1 (6%)
Epidemiology
- prevalence nearly doubled, 4.5% to 8.2% from 1995-2010[4]; prevalence 10% (2014)[23]
- prevalence of both type 1 diabetes & type 2 diabetes has increased among children & adolescents 2001-2009[22]
- prevalence of diabetes Aug 2021-Aug 2023 in U.S. 15.8% (overall), 18.0% (men), 13.7& (women), 3.6% age 20-39 years, 17.7& age 40-59, 27.3% age > 60, 24% of obese, 7% of normal weight, 28% of cases undiagnosed[49]
- 11% of cases are undiagnosed[4]
- men at greater risk of complications diabetes complications than women[48]
Genetics
- genetic variation in SOD2 is associated with susceptibility to microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus
Diagnostic criteria
- fasting blood sugar > 126 mg/dL on 2 separate occasions
- random blood sugar > 200 mg/dL + symptoms of diabetes polyuria, polydyspia or blurred vision[1]
- abnormal glucose tolerance test
- hemoglobin A1c >= 6.5%[2]
- elevated fasting serum glucose + elevated HgbA1c from same specimen[1][39]
* diagnostic criteria represent the approximate glycemic point at which the risk for retinopathy begins a steep ascent in relation to increasing plasma glucose
Laboratory
- in new-onset diabetes mellitus, need to distinguish diabetes mellitus type 1 from diabetes mellitus type 2
- serology*
- in early phases of diabetes mellitus type 1, patients may still secrete insulin, thus serum insulin & serum C-peptide are not useful[1]
- 90% have measurable antibodies against specific beta-cell proteins at the time of diagnosis[46]
- basic metabolic panel for serum glucose, serum creatinine (eGFR)
- hemoglobin A1c
- urine albumin/creatinine ratio
- see ARUP consult[3]
* diagnosis of type 1 diabetes is made on the basis of
Complications
- increased risk for cardiovascular disease
- increased risk of microvascular disease
- increased mortality[14]
- increased risk of geriatric syndromes[14][19][20]
- also see diabetes mellitus complication
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with Parkinson's disease.
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with chronic renal failure
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with depression
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with head & neck cancer
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with hypertension
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with hip fracture
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with mild cognitive impairment & Alzheimer's disease
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with dementia
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with urinary incontinence
Differential diagnosis
- type 1 diabetes mellitus
- serum C peptide
- positive serum islet cell antibodies in 80% of newly diagnosed type 1 diabetics
- positive anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase-2
- recurrent ketoacidosis as endogenous insulin secretion is lost
- age < 35 years
- weight at or below ideal
- not necessarily in early phases of type 1 diabetes[1]
- type 2 diabetes mellitus
- drug toxicity
- agents that interfere with insulin secretion
- agents that induce insulin resistance
- endocrine disorders
- chronic pancreatitis, pancreatectomy or pancreatic carcinoma
- genetic abnormalities in proinsulin or insulin receptor
Management
- see more specific type of diabetes mellitus
- individuals the goals of treatment[14]
- general goals of treatment[14]
- control hyperglycemia & its symptoms
- evaluation & treatment of complications of diabetes mellitus
- optimizing general health status
- American Diabetes Association recommends blood pressure target of < 130/80, in agreement with other organizations[1][43]
- American Diabetes Association recommends LDL cholesterol < 70 mg/dL & < 55 mg/dL for high-risk patients[43]
- take a break from prolonged sitting every 30 minutes [34
- risk of hypoglycemia is the most important factor in determining glycemic goals in the elderly[26]
- sole use of sliding scale insulin should be avoided[26]
- nutritional recommendations[8]
- use of ACE inhibitors or ARBs not recommended for patients with normal blood pressure & urine albumin/creatinine < 30 mg/g & eGFR > 60 mL/min/1.73 m2[1]
- use of ACE inhibitors associated with better outcomes than use of ARBs[13]
- self-management*
- important part of diabetes care
- annual self-management training is covered under Medicare part B
- hospitalized patients with diabetes mellitus[1][40]
* only 7% of privately-insured, patients with newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus participate in American Diabetes Association recommended diabetes self-management education & training[24]
More general terms
More specific terms
- diabetes & deafness, maternally inherited; Ballinger-Wallace syndrome
- diabetes mellitus type 1 (insulin-dependent, juvenile)
- diabetes mellitus type 2 (insulin-resistant)
- diabetics who become pregnant
- gestational diabetes
- ketosis prone diabetes; flatbush diabetes, type 1B diabetes, atypical diabetes
- secondary diabetes mellitus
Additional terms
- blood pressure & hypertension in diabetes
- diabetes in the elderly
- diabetes mellitus complication
- diabetes recognition program
- glycemic control
- hyperglycemia
- hypoglycemic agent
- prediabetes
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2018, 2022.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ 2.0 2.1 The International Olympic Committee International Expert Committee Report on the Role of the A1C Assay in the Diagnosis of Diabetes Diabetes Care June 5, 2009 http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/early/2009/06/01/dc09-9033.abstract
Lipska KJ et al. Identifying dysglycemic states in older adults: Implications of the emerging use of hemoglobin A1c. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010 Dec; 95:5289 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20861123
Cohen RM et al. HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes and prediabetes: Is it time for a mid-course correction? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010 Dec; 95:5203 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21131541 - ↑ 3.0 3.1 ARUP Consult: Diabetes Mellitus The Physician's Guide to Laboratory Test Selection & Interpretation https://www.arupconsult.com/content/diabetes-mellitus
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Increasing Prevalence of Diagnosed Diabetes - United States and Puerto Rico, 1995-2010 MMWR. Nov 16, 2012 / 61(45);918-921 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6145a4.htm
Selvin E et al. Trends in prevalence and control of diabetes in the United States, 1988 - 1994 and 1999-2020. Ann Intern Med 2014 Apr 15; 160:517. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733192 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1860528 - ↑ American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2011. Diabetes Care. 2011 Jan;34 Suppl 1:S11-61 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193625
Standards of medical care in diabetes--2012. Diabetes Care. 2012 Jan;35 Suppl 1:S11-63. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22187469 - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ryden L, Standl E, Bartnik M et al Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases: executive summary. The Task Force on Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Eur Heart J. 2007 Jan;28(1):88-136. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17220161
- ↑ Patel NB, Balady GJ. Diagnostic and prognostic testing to evaluate coronary artery disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2010 Mar;11(1):11-20 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20225090
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Evert AB et al Nutritional Therapy Recommendations for the Management of Adults with Diabetes. Diabetes Care. October 9, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24107659 <Internet> http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/early/2013/10/07/dc13-2042.full.pdf+html
- ↑ Ahmed I, Goldstein B. Diabetes mellitus. Clin Dermatol. 2006 Jul-Aug;24(4):237-46. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828404
- ↑ Van Hattem S, Bootsma AH, Thio HB. Skin manifestations of diabetes. Cleve Clin J Med. 2008 Nov;75(11):772, 774, 776-7 passim. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19068958
- ↑ VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Primary Care http://www.healthquality.va.gov/Diabetes_Mellitus.asp
- ↑ American Diabetes Association (ADA) Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes -2014 http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/37/Supplement_1/S14.full.pdf+html
American Diabetes Association (ADA) Executive summary: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes - 2014 Diabetes Care 2014 37: supplement 1 http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/37/Supplement_1/S5.full.pdf+html - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X et al Effect of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers on All-Cause Mortality, Cardiovascular Deaths, and Cardiovascular Events in Patients With Diabetes Mellitus. A Meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. Published online March 31, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687000 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1847572
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
- ↑ American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2011. Diabetes Care. 2011 Jan;34 Suppl 1:S11-61 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193625
- ↑ Brown AF, Mangione CM, Saliba D et al Guidelines for improving the care of the older person with diabetes mellitus. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003 May;51(5 Suppl Guidelines):S265-80. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12694461
American Geriatrics Society. Moreno G et al Guidelines abstracted from the American Geriatrics Society Guidelines for Improving the Care of Older Adults with Diabetes Mellitus: 2013 update. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013 Nov;61(11):2020-6. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24219204 Free PMC Article - ↑ Cigolle CT, Blaum CS, Halter JB. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease prevention in older adults. Clin Geriatr Med. 2009 Nov;25(4):607-41, vii-viii. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19944264
- ↑ Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO et al Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes Trials: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a Scientific Statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Jan 20;53(3):298-304 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19147051
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Araki A, Ito H. Diabetes mellitus and geriatric syndromes. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2009 Jun;9(2):105-14. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19740352
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Vischer UM, Bauduceau B, Bourdel-Marchasson I et al A call to incorporate the prevention and treatment of geriatric disorders in the management of diabetes in the elderly. Diabetes Metab. 2009 Jun;35(3):168-77. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19446486
- ↑ Lambert M. ADA releases revisions to recommendations for standards of medical care in diabetes. Am Fam Physician. 2012 Mar 1;85(5):514-5. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22534231
American Diabetes Association Introduction: The American Diabetes Association's (ADA) evidence-based practice guidelines, standards, and related recommendations and documents for diabetes care. Diabetes Care. 2012 Jan;35 Suppl 1:S1-2. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22187466 - ↑ 22.0 22.1 Dabelea D et al Prevalence of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Among Children and Adolescents From 2001 to 2009. JAMA. 2014;311(17):1778-1786. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24794371 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1866098
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2014 http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Li R et al Diabetes Self-Management Education and Training Among Privately Insured Persons with Newly Diagnosed Diabetes - United States, 2011-2012. MMWR. Weekly. November 21, 2014 / 63(46);1045-1049 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6346a2.htm
- ↑ American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2015: Summary of Revisions Diabetes Care. Jan 2015. 38:S1-S2 http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/38/Supplement_1
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Munshi MN et al Management of Diabetes in Long-term Care and Skilled Nursing Facilities: A Position Statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2016;39:308-318 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26798150 <Internet> http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/39/2/308.full.pdf+html
- ↑ Cowie CC, Rust KF, Byrd-Holt DD et al Prevalence of diabetes and high risk for diabetes using A1C criteria in the U.S. population in 1988-2006. Diabetes Care. 2010 Mar;33(3):562-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20067953 Free PMC Article
- ↑ Yeh HC, Brown TT, Maruthur N et al Comparative effectiveness and safety of methods of insulin delivery and glucose monitoring for diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Sep 4;157(5):336-47. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22777524
- ↑ Chamberlain JJ, Rhinehart AS, Shaefer Jr. CF, Neuman A Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes: Synopsis of the 2016 American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes. Ann Intern Med. Published online 1 March 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26928912 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2498492
- ↑ American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes - 2016 http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/suppl/2015/12/21/39.Supplement_1.DC2/2016-Standards-of-Care.pdf
- ↑ American Diabetes Association. (2) Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2015 Jan;38 Suppl:S8-S16. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25537714
- ↑ American Diabetes Association. (4) Foundations of care: education, nutrition, physical activity, smoking cessation, psychosocial care, and immunization. Diabetes Care. 2015 Jan;38 Suppl:S20-30 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25537702
- ↑ American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2014. Diabetes Care. 2014 Jan;37 Suppl 1:S14-80 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24357209
- ↑ Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Yardley JE et al Physical Activity/Exercise and Diabetes: A Position Statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2016 Nov; 39(11): 2065-2079 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27926890 <Internet> http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/39/11/2065
- ↑ Shubrook JH, Johnson EL ADA 2018 Abridged Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes: Update for Primary Care. Medscape. Dec 08, 2017. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/889401
American Diabetes Association Introduction: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes - 2018. Diabetes Care 2018 Jan; 41(Supplement 1): S1-S2 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222369 <Internet> http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/Supplement_1/S1
American Diabetes Association Improving Care and Promoting Health in Populations: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S7-S12. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222372
American Diabetes Association Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S13-S27. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222373
American Diabetes Association Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S28-S37. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222374
American Diabetes Association Lifestyle Management: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S38-S50. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222375
American Diabetes Association Glycemic Targets: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S55-S64. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222377
American Diabetes Association Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S73-S85. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222379
American Diabetes Association Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S86-S104. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222380
American Diabetes Association Microvascular Complications and Foot Care: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S105-S118. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222381
American Diabetes Association Older Adults: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S119-S125. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222382
American Diabetes Association Older Adults: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2021 Diabetes Care 2021;44(Supplement_1):S168-S179 PubMed: 33298423
American Diabetes Association Children and Adolescents: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S126-S136. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222383
American Diabetes Association Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S137-S143. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222384
American Diabetes Association Diabetes Care in the Hospital: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S144-S151. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222385
American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Advocacy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018 Diabetes Care. 2018 Jan;41(Suppl 1):S152-S153. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222386 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ahlqvist E, Storm P, Karajamaki A et al Novel subgroups of adult-onset diabetes and their association with outcomes: a data-driven cluster analysis of six variables. Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. March 1, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29503172 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587(18)30051-2/fulltext
Sladek R The many faces of diabetes: addressing heterogeneity of a complex disease. Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. March 1, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29503171 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587(18)30070-6/fulltext - ↑ Chamberlain JJ, Johnson EL, Leal S et al. Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: Review of the American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2018. Ann Intern Med 2018 Apr 3; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29610837 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/2677350/cardiovascular-disease-risk-management-review-american-diabetes-association-standards-medical
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Gregg EW, Cheng YJ, Srinivasan M et al. Trends in cause-specific mortality among adults with and without diagnosed diabetes in the USA: An epidemiological analysis of linked national survey and vital statistics data. Lancet 2018 May 18; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29784146 https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)30314-3/fulltext
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Elia J, Fairchild DG, Hefner JE Diabetes Diagnoses Confirmable from Single-Sample Measurements. Physician's First Watch, June 19, 2018 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Selvin E, Wang D, Matsushita K, Grams ME, Coresh J. Prognostic implications of single-sample confirmatory testing for undiagnosed diabetes: A prospective cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2018 Jun 19; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29913486
Narayan KMV, Jagannathan R. Two in one: Diagnosing type 2 diabetes with single-sample testing. Ann Intern Med 2018 Jun 19; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29913515 - ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care in the Hospital: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes - 2019. Diabetes Care 2019 Jan; 42:S173 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30559241 <Internet> http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/42/Supplement_1/S173
- ↑ American Diabetes Association. Living Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2019. June 3, http://care.diabetesjournals.org/living-standards#June/%203
- ↑ Chamberlain JJ, Doyle-Delgado K, Peterson L, Skolnik N. Diabetes Technology: Review of the 2019 American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes. Ann Intern Med. 2019. Aug 13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31404925 https://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/2748278/diabetes-technology-review-2019-american-diabetes-association-standards-medical-care
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Tucker ME ADA Advises New BP, Lipid Targets for People With Diabetes. Medscape. Dec 13, 2022 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/985482
ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR et al Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023 Diabetes Care. 2023. 46(S1-S2) Jan https://diabetesjournals.org/care/issue/46/Supplement_1 - ↑ ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 16. Diabetes care in the hospital: standards of care in diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S267-S278. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36507644 PMCID: PMC9810470 Free PMC article
- ↑ ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S19-S40. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36507649
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Basic Guidelines for Diabetes Care Packet California Diabetes Program http://www.caldiabetes.org/content_display.cfm?contentID=203 corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn May 2017
- ↑ Diabetes Dictionary http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/dictionary/index.htm
directory of Diabetes Organizations http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/resources/organizations.htm
National Diabetes Statistics http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/index.htm
Prevent Diabetes Problems http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/complications/index.htm - ↑ 48.0 48.1 Gibson AA, Cox E, Schneuer FJ et al Sex differences in risk of incident microvascular and macrovascular complications: a population-based data-linkage study among 25 713 people with diabetes. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2024 May 16:jech-2023-221759. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38755015 Free article https://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2024/04/17/jech-2023-221759
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Gwira JA, Fryar CD, Gu Q. Prevalence of Total, Diagnosed, and Undiagnosed Diabetes in Adults: United States, August 2021-August 2023. NCHS Data Brief No. 516, November 2024 Not yet indexed in PubMed https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db516.htm
Patient information
diabetes mellitus patient information