smoking cessation
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Introduction
Benefits:
- increased life expectancy
- smoking cessation is the single most important thing a smoker can do to improve life expectancy & quality of life[8]
- 14 year mortality lower with smoking cessation[4]
- smoking cessation at age 65 associated with increase in life expectancy of 1.4-12 year (male), 2.7-3.4 years (female)[3]
- lower cardiovascular mortality (independent of age)
- even if they gain weight[16]
- risk decreases by 50% in the 1st year
- risk returns to that of a non smoker in 10-15 years
- risk-advancement for cardiovascular death for former smokers is 2.2 years[39]
- cardiovascular risk appears to remain elevated well beyond 5 years in heavy smokers after they quit[61]
- lung function & circulation improve immediately after smoking cessation[3]
- respiratory ciliary function recovery
- ciliary function returns within 2 weeks
- a transient productive cough may occur
- risk of respiratory infections declines
- respiratory ciliary function recovery
- smoking cessation reduces risk of lung cancer[8][17]
- risk decreases more slowly than cardiovascular disease
- risk returns to that of a non smoker in 15 years
- smoking cessation may diminish prostate-specific mortality[43]
- risk of post-operative complications diminishes[1][9]
- smoking cessation 1 year prior to surgery may eliminate increased postoperative mortality[18]
- improvements in anxiety, depression, stress, quality of life, & affect, including patients with physical or psychiatric disorders[25]
- 30 years after quitting, risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer & respiratory tract disease returns to normal[70]
- it is never too late to late to quit smoking[13]
Adverse effects
- 1 year after quitting smoking, people have gained an average of 10 lb (4.5 kg); however, 16% actually lose weight[14]
- weight gain may limit pulmonary benefits of smoking cessation, especially abdominal obesity in men[5]
- cardiovascular benefits of smoking cessation even with weight gain[16][58]
- weight gain poses a trivial risk of harm compared with the benefits of smoking cessation[65]
- symptoms of nicotine withdrawal (see nicotine)
- smoking cessation may adversely affect glycemic control in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2[36]
- temporary increase in risk of type 2 diabetes risk, but risk offset by long-term reduction in mortality[58]
Management
- Public Health Services 5-step brief intervention (5 A's)[8]
- Ask about tobacco use
- Advise to quit
- Assess willingness to attempt to quit
- Assist in attempt & discuss a quit date <== (next step after advising to quit)
- Arrange for follow-up
- for patients unwilling to quit, enhance motivation (5 R's)[8]
- referral to smoking cessation program advised
- nicotine gum or patches should be prescribed prior to &/or with referral (GRS11)[3]
- smoking cessation & varenicline more important than depression screening in patients with manifestations of depression[8]
- bupropion appropriate for smoking cessation in patients with depression[68]
- both behavioral & pharmacotherapy interventions (nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion sustained release, & varenicline) to reduce tobacco use are recommended for nonpregnant adults (USPSTF)[64]
- behavioral interventions & pharmacotherapy together are more effective than either alone[64]
- for patients with serious mental illness, a combination of varenicline plus cognitive behavioral therapy may improve sustained smoking cessation at 6 months & 1 year[24]
- cognitive behavioral therapy ***
- behavioral therapy to reduce tobacco use is recommended for pregnant women[64]
- 1st line during pregnancy regardless of previous unsuccsessful attempts[68]
- pharmaceutical agents
- varenicline* (Chantix)
- as single agent, varenicline is more effective than bupropion or nicotine[8][50][63][69]
- has not been studied in elderly (GRS9)[3]
- varenicline plus bupropion
- outperforms varenicline alone in men & heavy smokers[30]
- varenicline plus nicotine patch better than varenicline alone (49% vs 23% at 24 weeks)[31]
- leads to higher smoking cessation rates among smokers who say they're not quite ready to quit (32& vs 7%)[34]
- varenicline (0.5 mg QD to 1 mg BID)
- smoking cessation 31% for varenicline vs 21% for placebo at 52 weeks[53]
- only after unsuccessful behavioral therapy during pregnancy[68]
- nicotine (conflicting reports)
- effective
- increases rate of success 50-70%[35]
- number needed to treat (NNT) = 15[35]
- pharmaceutical of choice in elderly[3]
- nicotine patch* more effective than gum[3]
- combining two nicotine products with different patterns of nicotine delivery is safe & more effective than using a single nicotine product first line[8][29]
- nicotine patches (21-mg patches tapered to 7 mg by 8 weeks) plus - nicotine gum or - nicotine lozenges (ok in patients with dental disease)
- nicotine patch plus nicotine spray
- nicotine combination as effective as varenicline[69]
- contraindicated in pregnancy[11]
- nicotine patch of no benefit in pregnant women[12]
- nicotine patches before a targeted smoking cessation date (nicotine preloading) probably deters use of varenicline, a more effective smoking cessation drug[56]
- early nicotine withdrawal may increase pain reactivity[57]
- a 3-week abstinence game plus nicotine replacement therapy helped 1 in 5 smokers quit who were not ready to quit at baseline[67]
- not contraindicated following myocardial infarction
- of no value[10]
- effective
- antidepressants
- bupropion* (Wellbutrin, Zyban) alone or in combination with nicotine patch[4]
- bupropion appropriate for smoking cessation in patients with depression[68]
- avoid bupropion with history of seizures
- avoid combination with nicotine during in pregnancy - safety in pregnancy unclear
- may be good choice in patients with depression[3] - may be associated with suicidal ideation[8]
- only after unsuccessful behavioral therapy during pregnancy[68]
- combination of bupropion & varenicline improves smoking cessation at 12 & 26 weeks, but not 52 weeks[23]
- tricyclic antidepressants
- SSRI of no benefit for smokng cessation[8]
- bupropion* (Wellbutrin, Zyban) alone or in combination with nicotine patch[4]
- clonidine
- cytisine may be better than nicotine replacement therapy
- varenicline* (Chantix)
- electronic cigarettes
- more effective than over-the-counter nicotine replacement[27]
- 18% vs 10% at year[60]
- e-cigarette for smoking cessation controversy[46]
- availability of e-cigarettes associated with more success in smoking cessation[49]
- use of e-cigarettes intermittently & concurrently with other cessation aids not useful for smoking cessation[52]
- evidence is insufficient to support use of e-cigarettes to reduce tobacco use[64]
- electronic cigarettes are similar to varenicline & better than nicotine gum for smoking cessation[71]
- electronic cigarettes plus counseling better than counseling alone[72]
- more effective than over-the-counter nicotine replacement[27]
* varenicline, bupropion, & nicotine patch do not increase cardiovascular risk in smokers
* review[66]
Notes
- physician training in smoking cessation skills & interventions may be useful (13% vs 5% success rate for patient smoking cessation[2])
- salivary nicotine metabolites (point of care test) may provide incentive for patients to quit[7]
- screening for carotid stenosis with carotid ultrasound not sufficient motivation for smoking cessation[11]
- interventions for adolecents not successful[15]
- both gradual & abrupt smoking cessation have poor success rates, 14-15%
- smoking cessation programs that begin during hospitalization & continue after discharge increases the odds of success[8]
- financial incentives double smoking cessation succcess rates[37] including among pregnant women[33]
- patient navigation + financial incentives improve smoking cessation among low income, minimally educated patients NNT=10[51]
- $600 improves 6 month smoking cessation rate (up to 3%)[55]
- neither free medication nor free electronic cigarettes improves 6 month smoking cessation rate (<= 1%)[55]
- more intense smoking cessation interventions by physicians after lung cancer screening are associated with greater likelihood of smoking cessation (65% vs. 58% of smokers)[38]
- smoking cessation after myocardial infarction associated with better health care outcomes vs continuing to smoke[40]
- abrupt smoking cessation more likely to be successful than gradual cessation[42]
- 1 minute smoking cessation intervention in the emergency department increased abstinence at 6 & 12 months[62]
- specifically, smoking cessation is more important than reducing alcohol intake in a 38 year old woman who smokes 10 cigarettes per day & drinks 2 alcoholic beverages most nights[8]
More general terms
Additional terms
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Journal Watch 22(6):46, 2002 Moller AM et al Effect of preoperative smoking intervention on postoperative complications: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet 359:114, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11809253
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Journal Watch 22(8):62-63, 2002 Cornuz J et al Efficacy of resident training in smoking cessation: a randomized, controlled trial of a program based on application of behavioral theory and practice with standardized patients. Ann Intern Med 136:429, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11900495
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Geriatrics Review Syllabus, American Geriatrics Society, 5th edition, 2002-20045/1519;
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 7th edition Parada JT et al (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2010
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2016
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 10th edition (GRS10) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2019
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 11th edition (GRS11) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2022 - ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Journal Watch 25(6):49, 2005 Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, Manfreda J, Kanner RE, Connett JE; Lung Health Study Research Group. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Feb 15;142(4):233-9. Summary for patientsin: Ann Intern Med. 2005 Feb 15;142(4):I12. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15710956
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Journal Watch 25(13):106, 2005 Chinn S, Jarvis D, Melotti R, Luczynska C, Ackermann- Liebrich U, Anto JM, Cerveri I, de Marco R, Gislason T, Heinrich J, Janson C, Kunzli N, Leynaert B, Neukirch F, Schouten J, Sunyer J, Svanes C, Vermeire P, Wjst M, Burney P. Smoking cessation, lung function, and weight gain: a follow-up study. Lancet. 2005 May 7;365(9471):1629-35; discussion 1600-1. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15885295
Colditz GA, Stein C. Smoking cessation, weight gain, and lung function. Lancet. 2005 May 7;365(9471):1600-1. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15885280 - ↑ Godtfredsen NS, Prescott E, Osler M. Effect of smoking reduction on lung cancer risk. JAMA. 2005 Sep 28;294(12):1505-10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189363
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Barnfather KD et al Effect of incorporating a 10 minute point of care test for salivary nicotine metabolites into a general practice based smoking cessation programme: randomized controlled trial. BMJ 331(7533): 999, 2005 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16210250
- ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 14, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2006, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022
2008 PHS Guideline Update Panel, Liaisons, and Staff. Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update U.S. Public Health Service Clinical Practice Guideline executive summary. Respir Care. 2008 Sep;53(9):1217-22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18807274 corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Jan 2013 - ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mills E et al. Smoking cessation reduces postoperative complications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Med 2011 Feb; 124:144. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21295194
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Alpert HR et al A prospective cohort study challenging the effectiveness of population-based medical intervention for smoking cessation Tob Control. Published Online First 10 January 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22234781 <Internet> http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/early/2012/01/10/tobaccocontrol-2011-050129.abstract
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Rodondi N et al. Impact of carotid plaque screening on smoking cessation and other cardiovascular risk factors: A randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2012 Jan 23; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22269590 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/archinternmed.2011.1326v1
O'Malley PG. On motivating patients: A picture, even if worth a thousand words, is not enough. Arch Intern Med 2012 Jan 23 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22269591 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/archinternmed.2011.1948v1 - ↑ 12.0 12.1 Coleman T et al. A randomized trial of nicotine-replacement therapy patches in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2012 Mar 1; 366:808 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22375972 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1109582
Oncken C. Nicotine replacement for smoking cessation during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2012 Mar 1; 366:846. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22375978 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1200136
Berlin I et al Nicotine patches in pregnant smokers: randomised, placebo controlled, multicentre trial of efficacy. BMJ 2014;348:g1622 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24627552 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g1622
Brose LS Helping pregnant smokers to quit BMJ 2014;348:g1808 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24620362 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g1808 - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Gellert C et al Smoking and All-Cause Mortality in Older People: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(11):837-844 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22688992 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1182214
Lam TH Absolute Risk of Tobacco Deaths: One in Two Smokers Will Be Killed by Smoking: Comment on "Smoking and All-Cause Mortality in Older People" <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22688993 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1182209 - ↑ 14.0 14.1 Aubin HJ et al Weight gain in smokers after quitting cigarettes: meta-analysis BMJ 2012;345:e4439 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22782848 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4439
Fernandez E Quitting smoking and gaining weight: the odd couple BMJ 2012;345:e4544 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22782849 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4544 - ↑ 15.0 15.1 Patnode CD et al Primary Care-Relevant Interventions for Tobacco Use Prevention and Cessation in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Ann Intern Med. 11 December 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23229625 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1476724
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Clair C et al Association of Smoking Cessation and Weight Change With Cardiovascular Disease Among Adults With and Without Diabetes. JAMA. 2013;309(10):1014-1021 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23483176 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1667090
Fiore MC and Baker TB Should Clinicians Encourage Smoking Cessation for Every Patient Who Smokes? JAMA. 2013;309(10):1032-1033 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23483179 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1667068 - ↑ 17.0 17.1 Chandler MA, Rennard SI. Smoking cessation. Chest. 2010 Feb;137(2):428-35. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20133289
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Musallam KM et al Smoking and the Risk of Mortality and Vascular and Respiratory Events in Patients Undergoing Major Surgery. JAMA Surg. 2013;():1-8. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23784299 <Internet> http://archsurg.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1698658
- ↑ Lindson-Hawley N et al. Gradual reduction vs abrupt cessation as a smoking cessation strategy in smokers who want to quit. JAMA 2013 Jul 3; 310:91. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23821093
Lindson-Hawley N et al. Reduction versus abrupt cessation in smokers who want to quit. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012 Nov 14; 11:CD008033 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23152252 - ↑ Pipe AL, Papadakis S, Reid RD. The role of smoking cessation in the prevention of coronary artery disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2010 Mar;12(2):145-50 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20425251
- ↑ McAfee T et al. Effect of the first federally funded US antismoking national media campaign. Lancet 2013 Sep 9 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24029166 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)61686-4/fulltext
- ↑ Fiore MC, Baker TB. Clinical practice. Treating smokers in the health care setting. N Engl J Med. 2011 Sep 29;365(13):1222-31 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21991895
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Ebbert JO et al Combination Varenicline and Bupropion SR for Tobacco-Dependence Treatment in Cigarette SmokersA Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2014;311(2):155-163 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24399554 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1812959
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Evins AE Maintenance Treatment With Varenicline for Smoking Cessation in Patients With Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2014;311(2):145-154 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24399553 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1812963
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Taylor G et al Change in mental health after smoking cessation: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014;348:g1151 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24524926 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g1151
Wu AD, Gao M, Aveyard P et al. Smoking Cessation and Changes in Anxiety and Depression in Adults With and Without Psychiatric Disorders. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(5):e2316111 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37256615 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2805442 - ↑ Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB et al 2008 PHS Guideline Update Panel, Liaisons, and Staff. Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update U.S. Public Health Service Clinical Practice Guideline executive summary.. Respir Care. 2008 Sep;53(9):1217-22. PMID:18807274
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Young K E-Cigarettes Beat OTC Nicotine Replacement for Helping Smokers Quit. Physician's First Watch, May 21, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ Tverdal A, Bjartveit K. Health consequences of reduced daily cigarette consumption. Tob Control. 2006 Dec;15(6):472-80. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17130377
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Rigotti NA. Strategies to Help a Smoker Who Is Struggling to Quit. JAMA. 2012;308(15):1573-1580. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23073954
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rose JE and Behm FM. Combination treatment with varenicline and bupropion in an adaptive smoking cessation paradigm. Am J Psychiatry 2014 Jun 17 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24934962
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Koegelenberg CF at el Efficacy of Varenicline Combined With Nicotine Replacement Therapy vs Varenicline Alone for Smoking Cessation. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2014;312(2):155-161 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25005652 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1886188
- ↑ McAfee T et al Helping Smokers Quit - Opportunities Created by the Affordable Care Act. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:5-7. January 1, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25409263 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1411437
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Tappin D et al Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2015;350:h134 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25627664 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h134
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Ebbert JO, Hughes JR, West RJ et al Effect of Varenicline on Smoking Cessation Through Smoking Reduction: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015;313(7):687-694. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25688780 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2110968 (industry-sponsored study)
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 The NNT: Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Smoking Cessation. http://www.thennt.com/nnt/nicotine-replacement-therapy-for-smoking-cessation/
Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C et al Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Nov 14;11:CD000146. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23152200
Hollands GJ, Naughton F, Farley A, et al. Interventions to increase adherence to medications for tobacco dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Aug 16;8(8):CD009164 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31425618 PMCID: PMC6699660 Free PMC article https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009164.pub3/full - ↑ 36.0 36.1 Lycett D et al The association between smoking cessation and glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a THIN database cohort study. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. April 29, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25935880 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587%2815%2900082-0/abstract
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Halpern SD et al Randomized Trial of Four Financial-Incentive Programs for Smoking Cessation. N Engl J Med. 2015. May 28; 372:2108. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25970009 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1414293
Sunstein CR Nudging Smokers N Engl J Med. May 13, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25970008 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1503200 - ↑ 38.0 38.1 Park ER et al Primary Care Provider-Delivered Smoking Cessation Interventions and Smoking Cessation Among Participants in the National Lung Screening Trial. JAMA Intern Med. Published online June 15, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26076313 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2301376
Ong MK Tobacco Cessation - We Can Do Better. JAMA Intern Med. Published online June 15, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26075733 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2301372 - ↑ 39.0 39.1 Mons U et al. Impact of smoking and smoking cessation on cardiovascular events and mortality among older adults: Meta-analysis of individual participant data from prospective cohort studies of the CHANCES consortium. BMJ 2015 Apr 20; 350:h1551 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25896935 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h1551
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 Buchanan DM et al Association of Smoking Status With Angina and Health-Related Quality of Life After Acute Myocardial Infarction. Circulation. Aug 25, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26307130 <Internet> http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/08/25/CIRCOUTCOMES.114.001545.full.pdf+html
- ↑ Baker TB, Piper ME, Stein JH et al Effects of Nicotine Patch vs Varenicline vs Combination Nicotine Replacement Therapy on Smoking Cessation at 26 Weeks. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2016;315(4):371-379 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26813210 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2484340
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Lindson-Hawley N, Banting M, West R et al Gradual Versus Abrupt Smoking Cessation: A Randomized, Controlled Noninferiority Trial. Ann Intern Med. Published online 15 March 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26975007 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2501853
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Jones MR, Joshu CE, Kanarek N et al Cigarette Smoking and Prostate Cancer Mortality in Four US States, 1999-2010. Prev Chronic Dis 2016;13:150454. April 14, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27079649 Free Article <Internet> http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2016/15_0454.htm
- ↑ Jha P, Ramasundarahettige C, Landsman V et al 21st-century hazards of smoking and benefits of cessation in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jan 24;368(4):341-50. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23343063 Free Article
- ↑ Cahill K, Stevens S, Perera R, Lancaster T. Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 May 31;5:CD009329. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23728690
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Yeh JS, Bullen C, Glantz SA CLINICAL DECISIONS. E-Cigarettes and Smoking Cessation. N Engl J Med 2016; 374:2172-2174. June 2, 2016. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27248625 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMclde1602420
- ↑ Fossati R, Apolone G, Negri E et al A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of bupropion for smoking cessation in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2007 Sep 10;167(16):1791-7. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17846399
- ↑ Hughes JR, Stead LF, Hartmann-Boyce J, Cahill K, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jan 8;(1):CD000031. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402784
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Beard E, West R, Michie S et al Association between electronic cigarette use and changes in quit attempts, success of quit attempts, use of smoking cessation pharmacotherapy, and use of stop smoking services in England: time series analysis of population trends. BMJ 2016;354:i4645 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27624188 Free Article <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/354/bmj.i4645
Britton J Electronic cigarettes and smoking cessation in England. BMJ 2016;354:i4819 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27623862 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/354/bmj.i4819 - ↑ 50.0 50.1 Anthenelli RM et al Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): a double-blind, randomised, placebo- controlled clinical trial. The Lancet. April 22, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27116918 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2816%2930272-0/abstract
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 Lasser KE, Quintiliani LM, Truong V et al. Effect of patient navigation and financial incentives on smoking cessation among primary care patients at an urban safety-net hospital: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Oct 30 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29084312
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 Rigotti NA, Chang Y, Tindle HA, et al Association of E-Cigarette Use With Smoking Cessation Among Smokers Who Plan to Quit After a Hospitalization: A Prospective Study. Ann Intern Med. 2018. March 27. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29582077 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2676738/association-e-cigarette-use-smoking-cessation-among-smokers-who-plan
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Windle SB, Dehghani P, Roy N, et al. Smoking abstinence 1 year after acute coronary syndrome: Follow-up from a randomized controlled trial of varenicline in patients admitted to hospital. CMAJ 2018 Mar 26; 190:E347. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29581161 Free PMC Article <Internet> http://www.cmaj.ca/content/190/12/E347
- ↑ Benowitz NL, Pipe A, West R et al Cardiovascular Safety of Varenicline, Bupropion, and Nicotine Patch in Smokers. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Intern Med. Published online April 9, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29630702 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2677060
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 Halpern SD, Harhay MO, Saulsgiver K et al. A pragmatic trial of e-cigarettes, incentives, and drugs for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 2018 May 23; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29791259 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMsa1715757
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Aveyard P for The Preloading Investigators Effects on abstinence of nicotine patch treatment before quitting smoking: parallel, two arm, pragmatic randomised trial. BMJ 2018;361:k2164 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29899061 https://www.bmj.com/content/361/bmj.k2164
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Ditre JW, Zale EL, LaRowe LR, Kosiba JD, De Vita MJ. Nicotine deprivation increases pain intensity, neurogenic inflammation, and mechanical hyperalgesia among daily tobacco smokers. J Abnorm Psychol 2018 May 21; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29781659
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Hu Y, Zong G, Liu G et al Smoking Cessation, Weight Change, Type 2 Diabetes, and Mortality. N Engl J Med 2018; 379:623-632. Aug 16, 2016 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30110591 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1803626
Schroeder SA Heavier but Healthier - Diabetes and Smoking Cessation. N Engl J Med 2018; 379:684-685. Aug 16, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30110593 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1809004 - ↑ Writing Committee, Barua RS, Rigotti NA, Benowitz NL et al 2018 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Tobacco Cessation Treatment. A Report of the American College of Cardiology Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents. J Am Coll Cardiol. Dec 2018. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30527452 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/early/2018/11/29/j.jacc.2018.10.027
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Hajek P, Phillips-Waller A, Przulj D et al A Randomized Trial of E-Cigarettes versus Nicotine-Replacement Therapy. N Engl J Med. Jan 30, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30699054 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1808779
Borrelli B, O'Connor GT. E-Cigarettes to Assist with Smoking Cessation. N Engl J Med. Jan 30, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30699299 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1816406 - ↑ 61.0 61.1 Duncan MS, Freiberg MS, Greevy RA Jr et al Association of Smoking Cessation With Subsequent Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA. 2019;322(7):642-650. Aug 20, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31429895 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2748507
Cole TB Smoking Cessation and Reduction of Cardiovascular Disease Risk. JAMA. 2019;322(7):651. Aug 20, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31429880 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2748488 - ↑ 62.0 62.1 Li WHC, Ho KY, Wang MP et al. Effectiveness of a brief self-determination theory-based smoking cessation intervention for smokers at emergency departments in Hong Kong: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2019 Dec 2 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31790546 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2756237
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 Leone FT, Zhang Y, Evers-Casey S et al Initiating Pharmacologic Treatment in Tobacco-Dependent Adults. An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32663106 https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.202005-1982ST
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 64.4 US Preventive Services Task Force, Krist AH et al. Interventions for tobacco smoking cessation in adults, including pregnant persons: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA 2021 Jan 19; 325:265. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33464343 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2775287
Patnode CD et al. Interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant persons: Updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA 2021 Jan 19; 325:280 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33464342 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2775286 - ↑ 65.0 65.1 Sahle BW et al. Weight gain after smoking cessation and risk of major chronic diseases and mortality. JAMA Netw Open 2021 Apr 1; 4:e217044. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33904915 Free article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2779121
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 Rigotti NA, Kruse GR, Livingstone-Banks J et al Treatment of Tobacco Smoking. A Review. JAMA. 2022;327(6):566-577. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35133411 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2788777
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 Houston TK, Chen J, Amante DJ et al. Effect of technology-assisted brief abstinence game on long-term smoking cessation in individuals not yet ready to quit: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2022 Jan 24; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35072714 PMCID: PMC8787683 (available on 2023-01-24) https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2788470
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 68.5 NEJM Knowledge+ Psychiatry
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Leone FT, Zhang Y, Evers-Casey S, et al. Initiating pharmacologic treatment in tobacco-dependent adults. an official American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;202:e5-e31. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32663106
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Thomson B, Islami F. Association of smoking cessation and cardiovascular, cancer, and respiratory mortality. JAMA Intern Med 2023 Nov 27; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38010645 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2811807
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 Lin H-X et al. Efficacy of electronic cigarettes vs varenicline and nicotine chewing gum as an aid to stop smoking: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2024 Jan 29; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38285562 PMCID: PMC10825782 Free PMC article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2814489
Hatsukami DK, Prochaska JJ. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation - A clinician's dilemma. JAMA Intern Med 2024 Jan 29; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38285557 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2814496 - ↑ 72.0 72.1 Auer R et al. Electronic nicotine-delivery systems for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 2024 Feb 15; 390:601. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38354139 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2308815
Rigotti NA. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation - Have we reached a tipping point? N Engl J Med 2024 Feb 15; 390:664. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38354147 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe2314977