cardiovascular risk factor

Etiology

Risk factors:

male age >= 45 years
- polymorphism (haplotype I) on the Y chromosome affecting differential expression of genes related to inflammation & immunity, increases risk 50% independent of other risk factors^[59]
female age >= 55 years
hormonal deficiency
- estrogen (estradiol) deficiency (men & women)^[19]
  - early menopause (before age 45)^[141]
- androgen deprivation therapy
higher serum testosterone in postmenopausal women^[168]
- in contrast, higher serum estradiol in postmenopausal women associated with lower cardiovascular risk^[168]
young nonsmokers without hypertension generally not at risk:
- only 0.04% of women < 50 & 0.09% of men < 40 years with elevated risk^[152]
black ethnicity
- hispanics tend to be low risk
coronary artery disease^[135]
family history of premature cardiovascular disease^[1]
- sibling history of cardiovascular disease^[11]
children with cardiovascular risk factors are more likely to experience serious cardiovascular events in adulthood^[181]
dyslipidemia*
- elevated total serum cholesterol (>= 200 mg/dL)^[1]
- elevated LDL cholesterol (> 160 mg/dL)
  - type B LDL particles responsive to carbohydrate intake but not type A LDL particles reponsive to saturated fat intake implicated^[86]
- low HDL cholesterol (< 40 mg/dL), even with low LDL^[22]
- HDL cholesterol > 60 mg/dL allegedly compensates for one other cardiac risk factor^[1]
- elevated serum triglycerides^[148]
  - serum triglycereides > 150 mg/dL in high-risk statin treated patientsassociated with increased cardiovascular risk^[174]
elevated serum C-reactive protein (> 2 mg/L)
elevated plasma homocysteine#
smoking* [4a]; risk 25% greater in women than men^[55]
- smoking cessation is the single most important thing a smoker can do to improve life expectancy & quality of life^[1]
- risk reduced within 2 years of smoking cessation
- risk returns to baseline 10 years after smoking cessation^[1]
air pollution^[136]
hypertension**
- BP > 140/90, prehypertension^[12] or being treated for hypertension^[1]
- systolic hypertension
  - systolic hypertension during sleep^[26]
    - systolic blood pressure greater during sleep than when awake substantially increases risk associated with sleep deprivation^[26]
    - systolic hypertension in adults < 50 years of age increases 30-year cardiovascular mortality^[112]
- wide variability of blood pressure in hypertensive adults associated with increased cardiovascular risk^[120]
  - variability in systolic BP (> 14 mm Hg) (RR=1.3-1.6)
  - variability in diastolic BP also associated with increased risk^[120]
  - higher visit-to-visit variability in systolic BP is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events in patients with systolic hypertension^[160]
- high & low systolic blood pressure (> 140 mm Hg or < 120 mm Hg) & high & low diastolic blood pressure (> 80 mm Hg or < 70 mm Hg) associated with increased cardiovascular risk in patients with stable coronary artery disease^[176]
  - no increase in risk of stroke with low blood pressure
- elevated blood pressure in young adults confers cardiovascular risk later in life^[171]
psychosocial stress, anger, hostility (catecholamine release)*
- blue collar & service workers (RR=1.4)^[99]
- police officers during stressful law enforcement duties^[106]
- job insecurity^[83]
- childhood psychosocial stress^[129]
diabetes mellitus* (2-fold risk)
- dysglycemia or increased HgbA1c inconsistent risk factor^[5]^[95]
- glycated hemoglobin better than fasting glucose for predicting cardiovascular risk in non-diabetic adults^[40]
- microalbuminuria^[1]
- risk greater for women than for men^[94]
- metabolic syndrome (risk similar to diabetes alone)^[43]
- severe hypoglycemia is a risk factor^[46]
- elevated insulin
- hyperglycemia^[148]
- diabetes mellitus less of a risk for cardiovascular events than coronary artery disease^[135]
- much greater risk factor than hypertension or dyslipidemia^[1]
obesity* or overweight
- increased BMI associated with increased risk
  - morbidly obese > obese > overweight^[162]
  - overweight associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity, but not mortality^[162]
- increased BMI, waist circumference or waist-to-hip ratio equally predictive of risk^[53]
- waist-to-hip ratio might be better than BMI for predicting sudden cardiac death^[108]^[127]
- duration of obesity factors into risk^[78]
physical inactivity*
suboptimal intake of dietary factors (fruits, vegetables, whole grains, sodium, nuts & seeds, processed meats) accounted for 45.4% of U.S. cardiovascular mortality in 2012
- diet low in fruits & vegetables*^[147]
- high sodium intake (9.5%)
- low consumption of nuts and seeds (8.5%)
- high intake of processed meats (8.2%)^[147]
constipation^[189]
alcoholism, binge drinking*^[1]^[50], alcohol abuse^[145]
loneliness, social isolation associated with underlying risk factors, unhealthy lifestyles or poor mental health^[164]
- social isolation with independent component of cardiovascular risk^[1]
elevated resting heart rate (either sex)
- diminished heart rate variability
obstructive sleep apnea^[80]
- adequate CPAP may reduce risk^[61]
non-coronary atherosclerosis^[4]
chronic kidney disease, even early stages^[1]^[45]
- proteinuria^[1]
- any degree of albuminuria is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events, heart failure hospitalizations, & all-cause mortality^[1]
acute renal failure requiring renal dialysis
osteoporosis
chronic inflammatory diseases^[113]
- rheumatoid arthritis^[13]^[113]
- psoriatic arthritis^[113]
- psoriasis greater risk factor than diabetes mellitus type 2^[142]
persistent asthma^[184]
lower level of education^[15]^[153]
- > 50% of adults who do not complete high school have an adverse cardiovascular event during their lifetime^[153]
sleep deprivation & and altered circadian sleep rhythms may play role^[25]^[26]^[37]
bedtime between 10 & 11 PM may be optimal time to reduce cardiovascular risk^[179]
major depression & bipolar disorder^[47]^[121]
infections
- HIV1 infection^[31]^[33]^[96]
- shingles^[89]
- hospitalization for pneumonia in middle-aged & older adults
  - RR=4.1, risk greatest within 30 days)^[111]
  - pneumococcal pneumonia or influenza infection
  - RR=5-12 in the week following infection)^[167]
elevated plasma C-reactive protein^[31]
elevated plasma FGF-23^[163]
radiation therapy^[1]
migraine^[88]
pharmaceutical agents:
- rofecoxib (Vioxx), doclofenac^[17]^[42]
dietary trans-fats^[122]
high calcium intake in women > 1400 mg/day
- calcium supplements further increase risk^[74]
arsenic exposure (urine arsenic > 15 ug/g or creatinine)
abnormal electrocardiogram in the elderly^[64]
ABO blood type: AB (1.23), B (1.15), & A (1.08), (risk relative to those with type O blood)^[67]
extremes in temperature^[68]
- U-shaped mortality vs temperature
- minimum mortality at 75 degrees
- hot temperatures confer higher mortality than cold temperatures
- extreme temperatures may act as a trigger for cardiovascular events due to changes in
women's health factors
- history of miscarriage or stillbirth^[97]^[158]
- menarche before age 12, menopause before age 47^[158]
- endometriosis^[130], hysterectomy^[158]
- preeclampsia^[172]
- increase in age at 1st birth associated with lower risk^[158]

* from MKSAP^[1]

older age, male
modifiable
- dyslipidemia, smoking, diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, obesity, inadequate exercise, poor diet^[1]
- smoking is the greatest modifiable risk factor^[1]^[188]
diabetes mellitus much greater risk factor than hypertension or dyslipidemia
coronary artery calcium score > 300 (75%)
high-sensitivity CRP in serum > 2 mg/L
ankle brachial index < 0.9
LDL cholesterol >= 160 mg/dL
family history of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in first degree relative < 55 years male, < 65 years female^[2]
red meat may modestly increase cardiovascular risk; effect is small
- once weekly red mead unlikely to contribute to cardiovascular risk

also see QRISK score

low serum DHEA-S levels predict cardiovascular events due to coronary artery disease (MI, acute coronary syndrome ..) in elderly men^[102]
- no association of serum DHEA-S & cardiovascular events due cerebrovascular disease (TIA, ischemic stroke)^[102]
variations in NPC1L1 that inhibit its function that lower plasma LDL cholesterol levels & a reduce the risk of coronary artery disease^[103]
hospitalization for pneumonia in middle-aged & older adults (RR=4.1, risk greatest within 30 days)^[111]
gout (RR=1.06 men, 1.25 women)^[115]
shorter adult height due to
- height-associated genetic variants (major factor)
- higher LDL cholesterol & plasma triglycerides^[117]
trauma (including unwanted sexual contact) in women^[119]

* greatest risk factors for myocardial infarction

* 9 modifiable risk factors account for > 90% of acute MI, in descending order:

dyslipidemia
smoking (smoking cessation has greatest impact on reduction of mortality)^[1]
psychosocial stress
diabetes mellitus (greater risk factor than dyslipidemia^[1])
hypertension
obesity $
alcohol consumption
physical inactivity
diet low in fruits & vegetables ** hypertension is relatively more important for stroke

# only marker that predicts cardiovascular mortality in the very old^[28]

also see cardiovascular risk calculator (numerous)^[138]

Postulated risk factors for CAD:

Chlamydia pneumonia infection
- no role for antibiotic treatment in CAD^[9] see CLARICOR trial
immune complexes (i.e. lupus erythematosus)
poor oral hygiene
- brushing teeth < twice a day)^[41]
- association with periodontal disease, not causality^[48]
- treatment of periodontitis improves endothelial function & reduces biomarkers of atherosclerotic disease^[93]
- transient increase in risk (4 weeks) after invasive dental procedure^[48]
low plasma antioxidants
mediastinal irradiation
dietary saturated fat^[38]; not a risk factor 122]
small, dense LDL particles
increased Lp<a>
increased VLDL remnants
increased IDL
xanthelasma
leukocytosis
thrombocytosis & increased platelet activity
increased fibrinogen
increased factor VIIa
hypercoagulability
- factor V Leiden mutation
- prothrombin mutation^[76]
chronic inflammation^[2]
- WBC > 6700/mm3 in postmenopausal women (HR = 1.4-2.4)^[8]
family history of premature cardiovascular disease^[3]^[63]
increased serum N-terminal proBNP (HR=1.82, risk=24%)*^[6]
increased serum CRP (HR=1.46, risk=7.8%)*
increased urinary albumin/creatinine (HR=1.88, risk=20%)*
shorter telomere length in peripheral blood leukocytes^[98]
- shorter telomere length in peripheral blood mononuclear cells^[20]
glucocorticoid receptor haplotype 3^[23]
SNP profile may contribute to differences in lipid profiles & perhaps cardiac risk^[24]
increased weight gain relative to height during an infant's first 3 months of life^[32]
thigh circumference^[35]
living within 328 feet of a freeway^[39]
recurrent miscarriages or a stillbirth ^[49]
screen entertainment time (television &/or computer screen)
- risk independent of physical activity^[52]
diet soda^[56]
Na+ & K+ consumption/secretion:
- low Na+/K+ consumption may diminish risk^[57]
delivery of small for gestational age infant^[65]
circulating endothelial cells may be risk factor for myocardial infarction^[90]

* hazzard ratio (HR) & absolute risk increase for highest 20% of elderly population (cardiovascular event & mortality)

NOT risk factors:

not NSAIDs
- excluding rofecoxib (Vioxx), diclofenac^[17]^[42]
not serum DHEA, serum testosterone^[19]
not most putative genetic risk factors^[21]
not fried foods (olive oil or sunflower oil)^[60]
not serum uric acid; a confounder, not risk factor^[79]
saturated fat^[86]^[122]

Epidemiology

most Americans have suboptimal cardiovascular health parameters as measured by life's simple 7 (LS7)^[165]
from 1988 to 2014, disparities in cardiovascular health between whites & non-whites diminished due to worsening cardiovascular health measures in whites^[165]
9.5% of Chinese (age 35-75 years) at high CVD risk (men:11.8%; women:8.0%)^[173]

Laboratory

fasting lipid panel
- USPSTF recommends screening all adults 40-75 years with lipid panel as part of calculating cardiovascular disease risk using the Pooled Cohort Equations^[1]
- lipid panel 4-12 weeks after initiation of statin therapy to assess
  - adherence to medication
  - response to statin therapy^[1]
cholesterol efflux capacity may predict cardiovascular risk better than HDL cholesterol or HDL particle size^[105]
high-sensitivity serum C-reactive protein^[69]
- recommended in men >= 50 or women >= 60 to determine if they might benefit from statin therapy for primary prevention^[51]
- might be reasonable in men >= 50 & women >= 60 if intermediate risk; not recommended for low or high risk patients^[1]
- USPSTF: insufficient evidence to recommend for or against high-sensitivity serum CRP^[73]^[159]^[169]
plasma fibrinogen^[69]
in patients at intermediate risk, no benefit of
- genetic testing
- advanced lipid testing
- serum natriuretic peptide^[51]
renal function tests
- diminished glomerular filtration rate & microalbuminuria/ albuminuria are risk factors for cardiovascular disease
- add little to traditional cardiovascular risk factors for stratifying cardiovascular risk but do improve risk stratification for renal outcomes^[54]
serum NT-proBNP only laboratory test that improved prediction of coronary artery disease with Framingham risk score (HR > 2 for 10 year risk) HR=2.5^[66]
HgbA1c or glycated hemoglobin (with or without diabetes) not associated with improvement in assessment of CVD^[95]

* also see ARUP consult^[178]

Diagnostic procedures

ankle-brachial index (ABI) < 0.7 & declining serial ABI may predict adverse cardiovascular outcomes^[27]
- MKSAP17 suggests ABI of < 0.9 is risk factor
- USPSTF: insufficient evidence to recommend^[159]^[169]
screening for abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA)
in patients at intermediate risk, no benefit of
- stress echocardiography^[51]
carotid ultrasound
- measurement of carotid-intima-media thickness (CMIT) reasonable if site (of testing) proficient^[51]
insufficient evidence to recommend for or against screening in higher-risk patients (see screening for coronary artery disease)
- routine screening in asymptomatic patients with diabetes mellitus does not reduce mortality (see diabetes mellitus type 2)
measure waist circumference in overweight patients
- indicator of risk for metabolic syndrome^[1]
- cost-effective cardiovascular risk stratification tool^[1]
screening with abdominal ultrasound for AAA, ABI for PAD, blood pressure for hypertension, & serum cholesterol for hypercholesterolemia may diminish all-cause mortality in men (10.2 vs 10.8%)^[156]
screening with electrocardiogram not indicated (USPSTF)^[157]
the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends calculating the cardiovascular disease risk in adults aged 40-75 years using the Pooled Cohort Equations.
cardiovascular risk calculator
- 10 year risk of 7.5%-20% considered intermediate risk^[172]

Radiology

in patients at intermediate risk, no benefit of
- coronary computed tomography angiography
- magnetic resonance imaging for the detection of vulnerable plaques^[51]
coronary artery calcium score > 300 (75th percentile)
- USPSTF concludes insufficient evidence to recommend for or against^[159]^[169]
carotid artery calcium
- intermediate risk patients^[51]
- patients >= 40 with diabetes mellitus
- serial testing not advised
- only imaging test that improved prediction of coronary artery disease with Framingham risk score (HR > 2 for 10 year risk) HR=6.2^[66]

Management

diet & lifestyle modifications are the cornerstone of management^[34]^[172]
- treat unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, poor diet, & lack of exercise as aggressively as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, & cardiovascular risk factors^[85]
- walking & running offer comparable benefits with similar total energy expenditures^[75]
- bicycling to work associated with reduced all-cause mortality vs driving or public transportation (RR=0.59) ^[149]
- benefits of physical activity extend to people at high genetic risk for cardiovascular events^[166]
- Mediterranean diet may be better than low-fat diet^[18]
- 4 of 5 MIs in men are preventable through healthy diet & lifetyle^[107]
  - this translates to a number needed to treat of 20 for 10 years to prevent 1 MI^[107]
- precedence for effectiveness of community prevention programs^[110]
- peer-led group sessions plus educational training may be of benefit^[128]
- improved intakes of polyunsaturated fats & nuts & seeds & lower intake of sugar-sweetened beverages reduced diet-related cardiovascular mortality in the U.S. by 25% from 2002-2012^[147]
- health plant-based diet associated with reduced cardiovascular risk^[154]
obtain Framingham risk score (or equivalent) on all asymptomatic adults^[51]
- other risk scores may be appropriate^[72]
aspirin 81-162 mg QD or clopidogrel 75 mg QD*
- secondary risk reduction
- USPSTF reccommends low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults 50-59 years of age with a 10-year cardiovascular risk of >= 10% [125, 132]
  - USPSTF reccommends against low-dose aspirin for primary prevention in adults >= 60 years [125, 132]
- routine use of aspirin no longer recommended for primary prevention^[187]
- AHA/ACC recommends low-dose aspirin for primary prevention in patients at high cardiovascular risk but low risk of bleeding^[187]
  - anticoagulation confers high risk of bleeding^[187]
  - risk using pooled cohort equations does not outweigh risk of anticoagulation
  - 81 mg aspirin with anticoagulation if myocardial infarction in past year^[187]
- benefit of continuing aspirin after upper GI bleed or lower GI bleed outweigh the harms in patients at high cardiovascular risk^[140]
- aspirin is not routine for diabetics at low risk^[1]
- patients with 10-year cardiovascular risk >= 6%^[109]
- low-dose aspirin no benefit in primary prevention for Japanese men > 60 years of age^[104]
- low-dose aspirin does not prevent primary cardiovascular events in black patients^[177]
statins# (see statin, & dyslipidemia)
- high-intensity statin (atorvastatin 40 mg QD or rosuvastatin 20 mg QD) for patients with:
  - known cardiovascular disease
    - dose to achieve > 50% reduction in LDL cholesterol
    - add ezetimibe as needed & then a PCSK9 inhibitor for high-risk patients with LDL cholesterol > 70 mg/dL^[172]
    - mortality risks decrease as statin doses increase^[143]
  - 10 year cardiovascular risk >= 20%^[1]
  - LDL cholesterol > 190 mg/dL, add ezetimibe as needed^[172]
  - treat-to-target LDL cholesterol 50-70 mg/dL non-inferior to high-intensity statins for patients with coronary artery disease^[185]
- moderate dose statin for intermediate cardiovascular risk
  - LDL-cholesterol > 70 mg/dL AND
    - diabetes mellitus OR
    - 10 year cardiovascular risk >= 7.5%-20% (AHA/ACC)^[1]^[151]^[172]; >= 10% (USPSTF)^[150]
  - if asymptomatic & coronary artery calcium score = 0, no statin needed^[1]
  - high-dose statin indicated but
    - age > 75 years^[139]
    - renal isufficiency
    - coadministration of drug that inhibits statin metabolism^[1]
- ezetimibe 10 mg recommended as 1st add on to statin therapy^[131]
- moderate intensity statin + ezetimibe as effective as high-intensity statin & better tolerated^[183]
- PCSK9 inhibitor in conjunction with statin may benefit patients with LDL cholesterol not at target (see PCSK9 inhibitor)
- adding PCSK9 inhibitor or ezetimibe to a statin lowers CV risk in patients with 5-year CV risk > 15%, but not in patients with lower risk^[182]
- see laboratory for monitoring response to therapy^[1]
- VA guidelines recommend no target LDL cholesterol] (see dyslipidemia)
colchicine 0.5 mg QD FDA approved for cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk patients
beta-blockers do not reduce risk of cardiovascular events
- except after myocardial infarction^[70]
ACE inhibitor for secondary prevention^[1]
treatment induced lowering of LDL-cholesterol lowers cardiovascular risk, whereas treatment induced increase of HDL-cholesterol does not^[30]
management of chronic hypertension
- JNC8 recommends blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg for most patients & < 140/90 mm Hg for older adults > 60 years (see JNC8)
- for subgroup & differing management strategies, see chronic hypertension
- intensity of blood pressure control based on cardiovascular risk may improve cardiovascular outcomes^[100]
  - more intensive systolic blood pressure control, target = < 120 mm Hg for patients at high risk for heart disease or with kidney disease may reduce cardiovascular events & mortality^[124]
- a systematic review of blood pressure guidelines in the elderly^[180]
  - conclusions differ from ref^[124]
guideline-recommended cardiovascular drugs (calcium-channel blockers, statins, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors & ARBs) appear to confer a survival benefit in older adults with multiple comorbidities (see survival)
influenza vaccine in patients with established cardiovascular disease to reduce risk of cardiovascular events^[1]
behavioral modification
- behavioral counseling of high-risk patients of small benefit^[101]
- a simple text messaging program to promoting healthy lifestyle can improve cardiovascular risk factors^[126]
- telehealth approach using lay persons trained in motivational interviewing following software-generated scripts that addressed diet, exercise, weight management, tobacco & alcohol use, medication adherence, & home blood pressure monitoring associated with small clinical benefits for a minority of people with high cardiovascular risk^[137]
- USPSTF suggests behavioral counseling towards promoting a healthful diet & exercise may be warranted in adults without risk factors^[144]
moderate consumption of alcohol reduces risk of coronary artery disease in men
dietary factors (also see prevention of cardiovascular disease)
- soluble (viscous) fiber lowers LDL cholesterol & estimated 10-year cardiovascular risk^[139]
- omega-3 fatty acids (DHA, EPA)
  - omega-3 fatty acids & statins favorably affect risk profiles & diminish overall mortality^[7]
  - no cardiovascular risk benefit of omega-3 fatty acids^[161]
- benefit of dairy uncertain
- regular tea intake (>= 1 cup/day) & higher caffeine intake associated with slower progression of coronary artery calcium & a reduced risk of cardiovascular events^[146]
  - coffee intake without effect^[146]
- Mediterranean diet & low-fat diet reduce all-cause & cardiovascular mortality in persons with cardiovascular risk factors^[186]
dog ownership reduces cardiovascular risk, possibly by the exercise associated with regularly walking the dog^[77]
in Finland, frequent sauna use reduces risk of sudden cardiac death (RR=0.37)^[114]
multivitamins & antioxidants of no benefit^[71]^[118]
- vitamin D of no benefit (100,000 IU monthly)^[148]

* but not in combination see MATCH study & CHARISMA trial

# may not be of benefit in the elderly (> 80)^[14]

Notes

Other Factors

Fitness & Overweight: improvements in one measure somewhat, but not completely, offset deteriorations in the other
some, but not all, common outward signs of aging are associated with increased cardiovascular risk
- male balding pattern, earlobe creases, xanthelasma are associated with increased cardiovascular risk^[92]
- gray hair, arcus corneae, wrinkles are not

country-specific cardiovascular disease mortality risk model^[116]

pharmacist-administered medication therapy management program in high risk patients (dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smokers) lowers cardiovascular risk scores^[133]

numerous cardiovascular risk calculators^[138]

Healthy Heart Score is relatively accurate in predicting future cardiovascular events in young adults^[155]

USPSTF concludes current evidence is insufficient to assess benefits vs harms of adding the ankle-brachial index, high-sensitivity CRP in serum, or coronary arter calcium score to traditional risk assessment for cardiovascular disease in asymptomatic adults

More general terms

health risk factor(s)

More specific terms

Additional terms

References

↑ ^1.00 ^1.01 ^1.02 ^1.03 ^1.04 ^1.05 ^1.06 ^1.07 ^1.08 ^1.09 ^1.10 ^1.11 ^1.12 ^1.13 ^1.14 ^1.15 ^1.16 ^1.17 ^1.18 ^1.19 ^1.20 ^1.21 ^1.22 ^1.23 ^1.24 ^1.25 ^1.26 ^1.27 ^1.28 ^1.29 ^1.30 ^1.31 ^1.32 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Journal Watch 20(18):142, 2000 Danesh J et al Low grade inflammation and coronary heart disease: prospective study and updated meta-analyses. BMJ 321:199, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10903648
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Journal Watch 24(12):97, 2004 Lloyd-Jones DM, Nam BH, D'Agostino RB Sr, Levy D, Murabito JM, Wang TJ, Wilson PW, O'Donnell CJ. Parental cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: a prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA. 2004 May 12;291(18):2204-11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15138242
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Journal Watch 24(22):159, 2004
Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, McQueen M, Budaj A, Pais P, Varigos J, Lisheng L; INTERHEART Study Investigators. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 11;364(9438):937-52. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364185 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol364/iss9438/full/llan.364.9438.primary_research.30683.1
Rosengren A, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Sliwa K, Zubaid M, Almahmeed WA, Blackett KN, Sitthi-amorn C, Sato H, Yusuf S; INTERHEART investigators. Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11119 cases and 13648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 11;364(9438):953-62. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364186 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol364/iss9438/full/llan.364.9438.primary_research.30684.1
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Journal Watch 24(21):159, 2004
Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, Rami T, Brancati FL, Powe NR, Golden SH. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):421-31. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381515
Khaw KT, Wareham N, Bingham S, Luben R, Welch A, Day N. Association of hemoglobin A1c with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):413-20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381514
Gerstein HC. Glycosylated hemoglobin: finally ready for prime time as a cardiovascular risk factor. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):475-6. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381522
Meinert CL et al A study of the effects of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes: II. Mortality results. Diabetes 1970; 19:Suppl:789. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4926376
Gerstein HC et al Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008 Jun 12; 358:2545 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539917 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802743
Patel A et al Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008 Jun 12; 358:2560. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539916 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802987
Duckworth W et al Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009 Jan 8; 360:129. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19092145 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0808431
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998 Sep 12; 352:837. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9742976
Montori VM and Fernandez-Balsells M. Glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: Time for an evidence- based about-face? Ann Intern Med 2009 Jun 2; 150:803. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19380837
Lehman R and Krumholz HM. Tight control of blood glucose in long standing type 2 diabetes. BMJ 2009 Apr 18; 338:901. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19264821 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b800
Havas S. The ACCORD trial and control of blood glucose level in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Time to challenge conventional wisdom. Arch Intern Med 2009 Jan 26; 169:150. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19171811
Haynes RB and Haynes GA. What does it take to put an ugly fact through the heart of a beautiful hypothesis? Evid Based Med 2009 Jun; 14:68. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19483017 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/NEJMoa0805796v1
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Kistorp C, Raymond I, Pedersen F, Gustafsson F, Faber J, Hildebrandt P. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, C-reactive protein, and urinary albumin levels as predictors of mortality and cardiovascular events in older adults. JAMA. 2005 Apr 6;293(13):1609-16. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811980
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, Glass TR, Bucher HC. Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Apr 11;165(7):725-30. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15824290
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Journal Watch 25(9):73-74, 2005 Margolis KL, Manson JE, Greenland P, Rodabough RJ, Bray PF, Safford M, Grimm RH Jr, Howard BV, Assaf AR, Prentice R; Women's Health Initiative Research Group. Leukocyte count as a predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Mar 14;165(5):500-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15767524
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Journal Watch 25(11):88, 2005 Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, Grayston JT, Muhlestein B, Giugliano RP, Cairns R, Skene AM; Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 Investigators. Antibiotic treatment of Chlamydia pneumoniae after acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1646-54. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843667
Grayston JT, Kronmal RA, Jackson LA, Parisi AF, Muhlestein JB, Cohen JD, Rogers WJ, Crouse JR, Borrowdale SL, Schron E, Knirsch C; ACES Investigators. Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1637-45. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843666
Anderson JL. Infection, antibiotics, and atherothrombosis--end of the road or new beginnings? N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1706-9. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843674
↑ Marcovitz PA, Tran HH, Franklin BA, O'Neill WW, Yerkey M, Boura J, Kleerekoper M, Dickinson CZ. Usefulness of bone mineral density to predict significant coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 2005 Oct 15;96(8):1059-63. Epub 2005 Aug 22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16214438
↑ ^11.0 ^11.1 Murabito JM et al, Sibling cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged aged adults. JAMA 2005, 294:3117 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16380592
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Kshirsagar AV et al. Blood pressure usually considered normal is associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease. Am J Med 2006 Feb; 119:133-41. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16443415
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Internal Medicine World Report 21(2) 2006
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Foody JM et al, Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors in older persons with acute myocardial infarction: Evidence for age- statin interaction J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54:421 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16551308
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 Yan LL et al, Education, 15 year risk-factor progression and coronary artery calcium in young adulthood and early middle age: The coronary artery risk development of young adults study. JAMA 2006; 295:1793 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16622141
↑ Rodondi N, Peng T, Karter AJ, Bauer DC, Vittinghoff E, Tang S, Pettitt D, Kerr EA, Selby JV. Therapy modifications in response to poorly controlled hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 4;144(7):475-84. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16585661
Perlin JB, Pogach LM. Improving the outcomes of metabolic conditions: managing momentum to overcome clinical inertia. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 4;144(7):525-7. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16585667
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 Solomon DH et al, Cardiovascular outcomes in new users of coxibs and non- steroidal antiinflammatory drugs: High-risk subgroups and time course of risk. Arthritis Rheum 2006; 54:1378 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16645966
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 Estruch R, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Corella D, Salas-Salvado J, Ruiz-Gutierrez V, Covas MI, Fiol M, Gomez-Gracia E, Lopez-Sabater MC, Vinyoles E, Aros F, Conde M, Lahoz C, Lapetra J, Saez G, Ros E; PREDIMED Study Investigators. Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Jul 4;145(1):1-11. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2006 Jul 4;145(1):I11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818923
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Arnlov J et al, Endogenous sex hormones and cardiovascular disease incidence in men Ann Intern Med 2006, 145:176 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16880459
↑ ^20.0 ^20.1 Brouilette SW et al, Telomere length, risk of coronary artery disease, and statin treatment in the West of Scottlan Primary Prevention Study: A nested case-control study. Lancet 2007, 369:107 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17223473
↑ ^21.0 ^21.1 Morgan TM, Krumholz HM, Lifton RP, Spertus JA. Nonvalidation of reported genetic risk factors for acute coronary syndrome in a large-scale replication study. JAMA. 2007 Apr 11;297(14):1551-61. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17426274
↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 Barter P et al. HDL cholesterol, very low levels of LDL cholesterol, and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2007 Sep 27; 357:1301. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17898099
↑ ^23.0 ^23.1 van den Akker et al, Glucocorticoid receptor gene and risk of cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:33 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18195193
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 Kathiresan S, Melander O, Anevski D, Guiducci C et al Polymorphisms associated with cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008 Mar 20;358(12):1240-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18354102
Kathiresan S et al, Six new loci associated with blood low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol or triglycerides in humans. Nat Genet 2008, 40:189 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18193044
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 King CR et al, Short Sleep Duration and Incident Coronary Artery Calcification JAMA. 2008;300(24):2859-2866. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19109114
↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 ^26.2 ^26.3 Eguchi K et al. Short sleep duration as an independent predictor of cardiovascular events in Japanese patients with hypertension. Arch Intern Med 2008 Nov 10; 168:2225. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19001199
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 Criqui MH et al, Progression of arterial disease predicts cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008 52:1736 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007695
Hiatt WR Can measuring the ankle-brachial index improve public health? J Am Coll Cardiol 2008 52:1743 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007696
↑ ^28.0 ^28.1 de Ruijter W et al Use of Framingham risk score and new biomarkers to predict cardiovascular mortality in older people: Population based observational cohort study. BMJ 2009 Jan 8; 338:a3083. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131384 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a3083
↑ Journal Watch General Medicine February 19, 2009 Commentary - Paul S. Mueller, MD, MPH, FACP
Hsia J et al. Resting heart rate as a low tech predictor of coronary events in women: Prospective cohort study. BMJ 2009 Feb 3; 338:b219 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19193613 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b219
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 Briel M et al Association between change in high density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. BMJ 2009 Feb 16; 338:b92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b92 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19221140
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 Triant VA et al. Association of C-reactive protein and HIV infection with acute myocardial infarction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009 Apr 21; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19387353
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 Leunissen RW et al Timing and Tempo of First-Year Rapid Growth in Relation to Cardiovascular and Metabolic Risk Profile in Early Adulthood. JAMA. 2009;301(21):2234-2242. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19491185
↑ ^33.0 ^33.1 Grunfeld C et al Preclinical atherosclerosis due to HIV infection: Carotid intima-medial thickness measurements from the FRAM study. AIDS 2009 May 18; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19455012
↑ ^34.0 ^34.1 Djousse L et al Relation between modifiable lifestyle factors and lifetime risk of heart failure. JAMA 2009 Jul 22/29; 302:394. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19622818
↑ ^35.0 ^35.1 Heitmann BL Thigh circumference and risk of heart disease and premature death: prospective cohort study BMJ 2009;339:b3292 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19729416 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/339/sep03_2/b3292
↑ Arriola L et al, Alcohol intake and the Risk of coronary heart disease in the Spanish EPIC cohort study Heart. Published Online First: 19 November 2009. http://doi:10.1136/hrt.2009.173419
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 Rauchenzauner M et al. Arrhythmias and increased neuro-endocrine stress response during physicians' night shifts: A randomized cross-over trial. Eur Heart J 2009 Nov; 30:2606. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19602503
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM. Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Jan 20. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20089734
Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Jan 13. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20071648
↑ ^39.0 ^39.1 LA Times, Feb 14, 2010
↑ ^40.0 ^40.1 Selvin E et al Glycated Hemoglobin, Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Risk in Nondiabetic Adults N Eng J Med 2010 362:800-811 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20200384 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/362/9/800
↑ ^41.0 ^41.1 de Oliveira C et al Toothbrushing, inflammation, and risk of cardiovascular disease: results from Scottish Health Survey BMJ 2010;340:c2451 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20508025 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/340/may27_1/c2451
↑ ^42.0 ^42.1 ^42.2 Fosbol EL et al Cause-Specific Cardiovascular Risk Associated With Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs Among Healthy Individuals. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes published online Jun 8, 2010; DOI:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.861104 http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/cgi/rapidpdf/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.861104v1.pdf
↑ ^43.0 ^43.1 Mente A et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk of acute myocardial infarction: A case-control study of 26,903 subjects from 52 countries. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 May 25; 55:2390. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20488312 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2009.12.053
↑ The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies The Lancet 2010, 375(9733):2215-2222 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20609967 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9
↑ ^45.0 ^45.1 Lee M et al Low glomerular filtration rate and risk of stroke: meta-analysis BMJ 2010; 341:c4249 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20884696 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c4249.full
Di Angelantonio E et al Chronic kidney disease and risk of major cardiovascular disease and non-vascular mortality: prospective population based cohort study BMJ 2010; 341:c4986 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20884698 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c4986.full
↑ ^46.0 ^46.1 Zoungas S et al, Severe Hypoglycemia and Risks of Vascular Events and Death N Engl J Med 2010; 363:1410-1418 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20925543 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1003795
↑ ^47.0 ^47.1 Hoen PW et al. Differential associations between specific depressive symptoms and cardiovascular prognosis in patients with stable coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 Sep 7; 56:838 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20813281
↑ ^48.0 ^48.1 ^48.2 Minassian C et al Invasive dental treatment and risk for vascular events: a self-controlled case series. Ann Intern Med. 2010 Oct 19;153(8):499-506. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20956706
Lockhart PB et al AHA Scientific Statement Periodontal Disease and Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease: Does the Evidence Support an Independent Association? A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association Circulation April 18, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22514251 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/04/18/CIR.0b013e31825719f3
Humphrey LL, Fu R, Buckley DI, Freeman M, Helfand M. Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2008 Dec;23(12):2079-86. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18807098
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 Kharazmi E et al Pregnancy loss and risk of cardiovascular disease: a prospective population-based cohort study (EPIC-Heidelberg) Heart doi:10.1136/hrt.2010.202226 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21123827 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2010/10/28/hrt.2010.202226.short
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 Ruidavets J-B et al. Patterns of alcohol consumption and ischaemic heart disease in culturally divergent countries: The Prospective Epidemiological Study of Myocardial Infarction (PRIME). BMJ 2010 Nov 23; 341:c6077 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21098615
↑ ^51.0 ^51.1 ^51.2 ^51.3 ^51.4 ^51.5 ^51.6 ^51.7 Greenland P et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 Dec 14/21; 56:e50. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21144964
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 Stamatakis E et al. Screen-based entertainment time, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular events: Population-based study with ongoing mortality and hospital events follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011 Jan 18; 57:292. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21232666
↑ ^53.0 ^53.1 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Separate and combined associations of body-mass index and abdominal adiposity with cardiovascular disease: Collaborative analysis of 58 prospective studies. Lancet 2011 Mar 26; 377:1085. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21397319
↑ ^54.0 ^54.1 Clase CM et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria as predictors of outcomes in patients with high cardiovascular risk: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2011 Mar 1; 154:310 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/PMID: 21357908
↑ ^55.0 ^55.1 Huxley RR and Woodward M Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 11 August 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21839503 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)60781-2/fulltext
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 WebMD: Is Diet Soda Linked to Heart, Stroke Risk? Study Suggests Connection Between Drinking Diet Soda and Risk of Heart Attack and Stroke http://www.webmd.com/stroke/news/20110209/is-diet-soda-linked-to-heart-stroke-risk
↑ ^57.0 ^57.1 O'Donnell MJ et al. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA 2011 Nov 23/30; 306:2229 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22110105
Whelton PK. Urinary sodium and cardiovascular disease risk: Informing guidelines for sodium consumption. JAMA 2011 Nov 23/30; 306:2262 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22110109
↑ Berry JD et al Lifetime Risks of Cardiovascular Disease N Engl J Med 2012; 366:321-329, January 26, 2012 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22276822
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 Charchar FJ et al Inheritance of coronary artery disease in men: an analysis of the role of the Y chromosome The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 9 February 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22325189 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61453-0/fulltext
Miller VM Family matters: sexual dimorphism in cardiovascular disease The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 9 February 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22325188 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60200-1/fulltext
↑ ^60.0 ^60.1 Guallar-Castillon P et al. Consumption of fried foods and risk of coronary heart disease: Spanish cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. BMJ 2012 Jan 24; 344:e363 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22275385
Leitzmann MF and Kurth T. Fried foods and the risk of coronary heart disease. BMJ 2012 Jan 24; 344:d8274. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22275384
↑ ^61.0 ^61.1 Campos-Rodriguez F et al. Cardiovascular mortality in women with obstructive sleep apnea with or without continuous positive airway pressure treatment: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2012 Jan 17; 156:115. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22250142
↑ Lee D-C et al. Changes in fitness and fatness on the development of cardiovascular disease risk factors: Hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012 Feb 14; 59:665. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22322083
↑ ^63.0 ^63.1 Qureshi N et al. Effect of adding systematic family history enquiry to cardiovascular disease risk assessment in primary care: A matched-pair, cluster randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2012 Feb 21; 156:253. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351711
Berg AO. Family history gets a boost. Ann Intern Med 2012 Feb 21; 156:315. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351717
↑ ^64.0 ^64.1 Auer R et al. Association of major and minor ECG abnormalities with coronary heart disease events. JAMA 2012 Apr 11; 307:1497 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22496264
Greenland P. Should the resting electrocardiogram be ordered as a routine risk assessment test in healthy asymptomatic adults? JAMA 2012 Apr 11; 307:1530. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22496268
↑ ^65.0 ^65.1 Bukowski R et al. Delivery of a small for gestational age infant and greater maternal risk of ischemic heart disease. PLoS ONE 2012 Mar; 7:e33047. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431995
↑ ^66.0 ^66.1 ^66.2 Kavousi M et al. Evaluation of newer risk markers for coronary heart disease risk classification: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2012 Mar 20; 156:438 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431676
Hlatky MA. Framework for evaluating novel risk markers. Ann Intern Med 2012 Mar 20; 156:468. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431679
↑ ^67.0 ^67.1 He M, Wolpin B, Rexrode K et al ABO Blood Group and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Two Prospective Cohort Studies ATVBAHA.112.248757, August 14, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22895671 <Internet> http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/08/14/ATVBAHA.112.248757.abstract
↑ ^68.0 ^68.1 Huang C et al Effects of Extreme Temperatures on Years of Life Lost for Cardiovascular Deaths: A Time Series Study in Brisbane, Australia Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 2012; 5: 609-614 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22991346 <Internet> http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/5/5/609.abstract
↑ ^69.0 ^69.1 ^69.2 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration C-Reactive Protein, Fibrinogen, and Cardiovascular Disease Prediction N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1310-1320 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23034020 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1107477
↑ ^70.0 ^70.1 Bangalore S et al. for the REACH Registry Investigators. beta-blocker use and clinical outcomes in stable outpatients with and without coronary artery disease. JAMA 2012 Oct 3; 308:1340. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23032550
↑ ^71.0 ^71.1 Sesso HD et al. Multivitamins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: The Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2012 Nov 7; 308:1751. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23117775
↑ ^72.0 ^72.1 Wilkins JT et al. Lifetime risk and years lived free of total cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2012 Nov 7; 308:1795. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2311778
↑ ^73.0 ^73.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Oct 6;151(7):474-82 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19805770
↑ ^74.0 ^74.1 Michaelsson K et al Long term calcium intake and rates of all cause and cardiovascular mortality: community based prospective longitudinal cohort study. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23403980 BMJ 2013;346:f228 http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f228
↑ ^75.0 ^75.1 Williams PT and Thompson PD Walking Versus Running for Hypertension, Cholesterol, and Diabetes Mellitus Risk Reduction. Atherosclerosis/Lipoproteins. April 4 , 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23559628 <Internet> http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/04/04/ATVBAHA.112.300878.abstract
↑ ^76.0 ^76.1 Sode BF et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism and myocardial infarction associated with factor V Leiden and prothrombin mutations and blood type. CMAJ 2013 Mar 19; 185:E229. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23382263
↑ ^77.0 ^77.1 Levine GN et al Pet Ownership and Cardiovascular Risk: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. May 9, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23661721 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/05/09/CIR.0b013e31829201e1.full.pdf+html
↑ ^78.0 ^78.1 Reis JP et al Association Between Duration of Overall and Abdominal Obesity Beginning in Young Adulthood and Coronary Artery Calcification in Middle Age. JAMA. 2013;310(3):280-288 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23860986 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1713590
↑ ^79.0 ^79.1 Palmer TM et al Association of plasma uric acid with ischaemic heart disease and blood pressure: mendelian randomisation analysis of two large cohorts. BMJ 2013;347:f4262 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23869090 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f4262
↑ ^80.0 ^80.1 Gami AS et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk of sudden cardiac death: A longitudinal study of 10,701 adults. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Jun 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23770166 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109713022511
↑ Corson MA. Emerging inflammatory markers for assessing coronary heart disease risk. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2009 Nov;11(6):452-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19863870
↑ Forouhi NG, Sattar N. CVD risk factors and ethnicity--a homogeneous relationship? Atheroscler Suppl. 2006 Apr;7(1):11-9. Epub 2006 Feb 24. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16500156
↑ ^83.0 ^83.1 Virtanen M et al. Perceived job insecurity as a risk factor for incident coronary heart disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2013 Aug 8; 347:f4746 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23929894 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f4746
↑ Moon KA et al Association Between Exposure to Low to Moderate Arsenic Levels and Incident Cardiovascular Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. Published online 24 September 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24061511 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1740759
↑ ^85.0 ^85.1 Spring B et al Better Population Health Through Behavior Change in Adults. A call to action. Circulation. October 7, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24100544 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/10/07/01.cir.0000435173.25936.e1.full.pdf+html
↑ ^86.0 ^86.1 ^86.2 Malhotra A et al Saturated fat is not the major issue. BMJ 2013;347:f6340 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24149521 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6340
↑ Goff DC Jr et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guidelines on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Nov 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24222018 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1770220
↑ ^88.0 ^88.1 Bigal ME, Kurth T, Santanello N et al Migraine and cardiovascular disease: a population-based study. Neurology. 2010 Feb 23;74(8):628-35 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20147658
↑ ^89.0 ^89.1 Breuer J et al Herpes zoster as a risk factor for stroke and TIA: A retrospective cohort study in the UK. Neurology. Jan 2, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24384645 <Internet> http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2014/01/02/WNL.0000000000000038.full.pdf+html
↑ ^90.0 ^90.1 Bethel K et al Fluid phase biopsy for detection and characterization of circulating endothelial cells in myocardial infarction. Phys. Biol. 2014. 11 016002 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24406475 <Internet> http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-3975/11/1/016002/article
↑ Physician's First Watch, Feb 7, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org Journal of the American Society of Nephrology article
Hsu CY and Liu KD Cardiovascular Events after AKI: A New Dimension. JASN, Feb 6, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24503240 <Internet> http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2014/02/05/ASN.2013121276.full
↑ ^92.0 ^92.1 Christoffersen M et al. Visible age-related signs and risk of ischemic heart disease in the general population: A prospective cohort study. Circulation 2013 Dec 13 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24334176 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/12/13/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.001696
↑ ^93.0 ^93.1 Teeuw WJ, Slot DE, Susanto H et al Treatment of periodontitis improves the atherosclerotic profile: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Periodontol. 2014 Jan;41(1):70-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24111886
↑ ^94.0 ^94.1 Soloway B NEJM Journal Watch. March 13, 2014 Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Peters SAE et al. Diabetes as a risk factor for stroke in women compared with men: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 64 cohorts, including 775 385 individuals and 12 539 strokes. Lancet 2014 Mar 7; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24613026 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2960040-4/fulltext
↑ ^95.0 ^95.1 ^95.2 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration Glycated Hemoglobin Measurement and Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA. 2014;311(12):1225-1233. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24668104 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1852370
↑ ^96.0 ^96.1 Post WS et al Associations Between HIV Infection and Subclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(7):458-467 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687069 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1852867
Currier JS and Stein JH HIV and Atherosclerosis: Moving From Associations to Mechanisms and Interventions. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687073 Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(7):509-510. http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1852877
↑ ^97.0 ^97.1 Parker DR et al Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Among Postmenopausal Women with Prior Pregnancy Loss: The Women's Health Initiative. Ann Fam Med July/August 2014 vol. 12 no. 4 302-309 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25024237 <Internet> http://www.annfammed.org/content/12/4/302.full
↑ ^98.0 ^98.1 Haycock PC et al. Leucocyte telomere length and risk of cardiovascular disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014 Jul 8; 349:g4227 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25006006 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g4227
↑ ^99.0 ^99.1 Luckhaupt SE et al Prevalence of Coronary Heart Disease or Stroke Among Workers Aged < 55 years - United States 2008-2012. MMWR Weekly. August 1, 2014 / 63(30);645-649 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6330a1.htm
↑ ^100.0 ^100.1 The Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration Blood pressure-lowering treatment based on cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. The Lancet, 384(9943): 591-598, 16 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25131978 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961212-5/abstract
↑ ^101.0 ^101.1 LeFevre ML et al. Behavioral counseling to promote a healthful diet and physical activity for cardiovascular disease prevention in adults with cardiovascular risk factors: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2014 Oct 21; 161:587 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25155419 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1899533
↑ ^102.0 ^102.1 ^102.2 Tivesten A et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate predict the 5-year risk of coronary heart disease events in elderly men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 Oct 28; 64:1801 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25443702 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109714059403
Sutton NR and Pinsky DJ. Sex steroid as a new oracle to predict cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 Oct 28; 64:1811. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25443703 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109714059397
↑ ^103.0 ^103.1 The Myocardial Infarction Genetics Consortium Investigators Inactivating Mutations in NPC1L1 and Protection from Coronary Heart Disease. N Engl J Med. Nov 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25390462 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1405386
↑ ^104.0 ^104.1 Ikeda Y et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in Japanese patients 60 years or older with atherosclerotic risk factors: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014 Nov 17 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25401325 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1936801
↑ ^105.0 ^105.1 Husten L, Fairchild DG, Di Francesco L HDL Function, Not Level, Looks Like the Key Physician's First Watch, Nov 19, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Rohatgi A et al HDL Cholesterol Efflux Capacity and Incident Cardiovascular Events. N Engl J Med. Nov 18, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404125 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1409065
↑ ^106.0 ^106.1 Varvarigou V et al Law enforcement duties and sudden cardiac death among police officers in United States: case distribution study. BMJ 2014;349:g6534 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25406189 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g6534
↑ ^107.0 ^107.1 ^107.2 Akesson A, Larsson SC, Discacciati A, Wolk A. Low-risk diet and lifestyle habits in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257629 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1909605
Mozaffarian D. The promise of lifestyle for cardiovascular health. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257630
↑ ^108.0 ^108.1 Adabag S et al Obesity related risk of sudden cardiac death in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Heart Nov 19, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25410499 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2014/10/30/heartjnl-2014-306238
Reinier K, Chugh SS Obesity and sudden death: visceral response? Heart Nov 19, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25502517 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2014/11/21/heartjnl-2014-306921
↑ ^109.0 ^109.1 Husten L, Hefner JE High Rate of Inappropriate Use of Aspirin for Primary Prevention. Physician's First Watch, Jan 13, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Hira RS et al Frequency and Practice-Level Variation in Inappropriate Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(2):111-121 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593051 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2089094
Verheugt FWA The Role of the Cardiologist in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease With Aspirin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(2):122-124 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593052 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2089095
↑ ^110.0 ^110.1 Burgess Record N et al Community-Wide Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Programs and Health Outcomes in a Rural County, 1970-2010. JAMA. 2015;313(2):147-155 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25585326 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2089352
Labarthe DR, Stamler J Improving Cardiovascular Health in a Rural Population. Can Other Communities Do the Same? JAMA. 2015;313(2):139-140 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25585322 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2089334
↑ ^111.0 ^111.1 ^111.2 Corrales-Medina VF et al Association Between Hospitalization for Pneumonia and Subsequent Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA. 2015;313(3):264-274. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25602997 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2091304
↑ ^112.0 ^112.1 Yano Y, Stamler J, Garside DB et al Isolated Systolic Hypertension in Young and Middle-Aged Adults and 31-Year Risk for Cardiovascular Mortality. The Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(4):327-335 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25634830 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2091726
↑ ^113.0 ^113.1 ^113.2 ^113.3 Ogdie A et al. Risk of major cardiovascular events in patients with psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis: A population- based cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 2015 Feb; 74:326. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25351522 <Internet> http://ard.bmj.com/content/74/2/326
↑ ^114.0 ^114.1 Laukkanen T et al Association Between Sauna Bathing and Fatal Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality Events. JAMA Intern Med. Published online February 23, 2015. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25705824 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130724
↑ ^115.0 ^115.1 Clarson LE et al. Increased risk of vascular disease associated with gout: A retrospective, matched cohort study in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Ann Rheum Dis 2015 Apr; 74:642 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165032 <Internet> http://ard.bmj.com/content/74/4/642
↑ ^116.0 ^116.1 Young K, Sadoughi S. Saitz R Model Predicts Country-Specific CVD Mortality Risk Physician's First Watch, March 26, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587%2815%2970007-0/abstract
↑ ^117.0 ^117.1 Nelson CP et al Genetically Determined Height and Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med. April 8, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25853659 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1404881
↑ ^118.0 ^118.1 The NNT: Vitamin and Antioxidant Supplements for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. http://www.thennt.com/nnt/vitamins-and-antioxidants-for-primary-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease/
Myung SK, Ju W, Cho B et al Efficacy of vitamin and antioxidant supplements in prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2013 Jan 18;346:f10. doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1136/bmj.f10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23335472
Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Mar 14;3:CD007176 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22419320
Marti-Carvajal AJ, Sola I, Lathyris D et al Homocysteine-lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jan 31;1:CD006612. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440809
Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, Gamble GD, Reid IR. Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women's Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011;342:d2040. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21505219
↑ ^119.0 ^119.1 Sumner JA et al Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Predict Onset of Cardiovascular Events in Women. Circulation. June 29, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26124186 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/06/23/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.014492.abstract
↑ ^120.0 ^120.1 ^120.2 Orciari Herman A, Fairchild DG, Hefner JE Blood Pressure Variability Tied to Increased Risk for CVD, Mortality. Physician's First Watch, July 28, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Stevens SL, Wood S, Koshiaris C et al. Blood pressure variability and cardiovascular disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2016 Aug 9; 354:i4098 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27511067 Free PMC Article
↑ ^121.0 ^121.1 Goldstein BI et al Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder Predispose Youth to Accelerated Atherosclerosis and Early Cardiovascular Disease. A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. Aug 10, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26260736 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/08/10/CIR.0000000000000229.full.pdf+html
↑ ^122.0 ^122.1 ^122.2 de Souza RJ et al Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ 2015;351:h3978 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26268692 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h3978
↑ Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH et al 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 1;63(25 Pt B):2889-934 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239923
↑ ^124.0 ^124.1 ^124.2 NIH News and Events. Sept 11, 2015 Landmark NIH study shows intensive blood pressure management may save lives. http://www.nih.gov/news/health/sep2015/nhlbi-11.htm
↑ US Preventive Services Task Force Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement JAMA. 2022 Apr 26;327(16):1577-1584 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35471505
↑ ^126.0 ^126.1 Chow CK, Redfern J, Hillis GS et al Effect of Lifestyle-Focused Text Messaging on Risk Factor Modification in Patients With Coronary Heart Disease. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015;314(12):1255-1263. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26393848 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2442937
Eapen ZJ, Peterson ED Can Mobile Health Applications Facilitate Meaningful Behavior Change? Time for Answers. JAMA. 2015;314(12):1236-1237 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26393844 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2442914
↑ ^127.0 ^127.1 Sahakyan KR et al Normal-Weight Central Obesity: Implications for Total and Cardiovascular Mortality. Ann Intern Med. Published online 10 November 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551006 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468805
Poirier P The Many Paradoxes of Our Modern World: Is There Really an Obesity Paradox or Is It Only a Matter of Adiposity Assessment? Ann Intern Med. Published online 10 November 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551376 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468808
↑ ^128.0 ^128.1 Gomez E, Fernandez-Alvira JM, Vilanova M et al A Comprehensive Lifestyle Peer-Group-Based Intervention on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: The Randomized Controlled Fifty-Fifty Program. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;() <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26562047 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468916
↑ ^129.0 ^129.1 Juonala M, Pulkki-Raback L, Elovainio M, et al. Childhood psychosocial factors and coronary artery calcification in adulthood: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA Pediatr 2016 Mar 14 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26974359 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2502623
↑ ^130.0 ^130.1 Mu F, Rich-Edwards J, Rimm EB et al Endometriosis and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. Circulation. March 29, 2016 http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/early/2016/03/29/CIRCOUTCOMES.115.002224.abstract
↑ ^131.0 ^131.1 Lloyd-Jones DM et al 2016 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on the Role of Non-Statin Therapies for LDL-Cholesterol Lowering in the Management of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. April 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27046161 Free Article <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2510936#tab1
↑ Bibbins-Domingo K on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Colorectal Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. Published online 12 April 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27064677 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2513179
↑ ^133.0 ^133.1 Tsuyuki RT et al. Effectiveness of community pharmacist prescribing and care on cardiovascular risk reduction: Randomized controlled RxEACH trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016 Apr 4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27058907
↑ Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD et al 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 1;63(25 Pt B):2960-84. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239922 Free Article
↑ ^135.0 ^135.1 ^135.2 Rana JS et al. Diabetes and prior coronary heart disease are not necessarily risk equivalent for future coronary heart disease events. J Gen Intern Med 2016 Apr; 31:387 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26666660
↑ ^136.0 ^136.1 Kaufman JD et al. Association between air pollution and coronary artery calcification within six metropolitan areas in the USA (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution): A longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 2016 May 24; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27233746
Brunekreef B, Hoffmann B. Air pollution and heart disease. Lancet 2016 May 24 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27233744
↑ ^137.0 ^137.1 Salisbury C, O'Cathain A, Thomas C et al. Telehealth for patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2016 Jun 1; 353:i2647 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27252245 Free PMC Article
↑ ^138.0 ^138.1 ^138.2 Damen JA, Hooft L, Schuit E et al Prediction models for cardiovascular disease risk in the general population: Systematic review. BMJ 2016;353:i2416 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27184143 Free PMC Article
Holt T. Predicting cardiovascular disease: An over-abundance of risk models offering few real benefits to patients. BMJ 2016;353:i2621 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27185596
↑ ^139.0 ^139.1 ^139.2 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2016
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 11th edition (GRS11) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2022
Fleg JL, Forman DE, Berra K et al Secondary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in older adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013 Nov 26;128(22):2422-46. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24166575 Free PMC Article
↑ ^140.0 ^140.1 Chan FK, Leung Ki EL, Wong GL et al. Risks of bleeding recurrence and cardiovascular events with continued aspirin use after lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastroenterology 2016 Aug; 151:271. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27130815
↑ ^141.0 ^141.1 Muka T, Oliver-Williams C, Kunutsor S et al Association of Age at Onset of Menopause and Time Since Onset of Menopause With Cardiovascular Outcomes, Intermediate Vascular Traits, and All-Cause MortalityA Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol. Published online September 14, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27627190 <Internet> http://cardiology.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2551981
Manson JE, Woodruff TK Reproductive Health as a Marker of Subsequent Cardiovascular Disease. The Role of Estrogen. JAMA Cardiol. Published online September 14, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27626902 <Internet> http://cardiology.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2551979
↑ ^142.0 ^142.1 Mansouri B, Kivelevitch D, Natarajan B et al Comparison of Coronary Artery Calcium Scores Between Patients With Psoriasis and Type 2 Diabetes. JAMA Dermatol. Published online August 24, 2016. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27556410 <Internet> http://archderm.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2546028
↑ ^143.0 ^143.1 Rodriguez F, Maron DJ, Knowles JW et al Association Between Intensity of Statin Therapy and Mortality in Patients With Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Cardiol. Published online November 9, 2016 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27829091
Bonow RO, Yancy CW. High-Intensity Statins for Secondary Prevention. JAMA Cardiol. 2016 Nov 9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27829079
↑ ^144.0 ^144.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) Draft Recommendation Statement Healthful Diet and Physical Activity for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Adults Without Known Risk Factors: Behavioral Counseling. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/healthful-diet-and-physical-activity-for-cardiovascular-disease-prevention-in-adults-without-known-risk-factors-behavioral-counseling
↑ ^145.0 ^145.1 Whitman IR, Agarwal V, Nah G et al Alcohol Abuse and Cardiac Disease J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 1, Jan 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28057245 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/1/13
Criqui MH, Thomas IC Alcohol Consumption and Cardiac Disease. Where Are We Now? J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 1, Jan 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28057246 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/1/25
↑ ^146.0 ^146.1 ^146.2 Miller PE, Zhao D, Frazier-Wood AC et al. Associations of coffee, tea, and caffeine intake with coronary artery calcification and cardiovascular events. Am J Med 2017 Feb; 130:188 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27640739 <Internet> http://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(16)30925-1/abstract
↑ ^147.0 ^147.1 ^147.2 ^147.3 Micha R, Penalvo JL, Cudhea F et al. Association between dietary factors and mortality from heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes in the United States. JAMA 2017 Mar 7; 317:912 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28267855
↑ ^148.0 ^148.1 ^148.2 ^148.3 Scragg R, Stewart AW, Waayer D et al Effect of Monthly High-Dose Vitamin D Supplementation on Cardiovascular Disease in the Vitamin D Assessment Study. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Cardiol. Published online April 5, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26365555 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2615260
Hernandez AF, Harrington RA, M O'Donnell CJ. Integrating Research With Clinical Practice. Keeping It Simple. JAMA Cardiol. Published online April 5, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28384692 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2615258
↑ ^149.0 ^149.1 Celis-Morales CA, Lyall DM, Welsh P et al Association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2017;357:j1456 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28424154 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1456
Andersen LB Active commuting is beneficial for health. BMJ 2017;357:j1740 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28424155 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1740
↑ ^150.0 ^150.1 US Preventive Services Task Force Statin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults. US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2016;316(19):1997-2007. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838723 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2584058
Chou R, Dana T, Blazina I et al Statins for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults. Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838722 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2584058
Greenland P, Bonow RO. Interpretation and use of another statin guideline. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1977. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838703
Redberg RF, Katz MH. Statins for primary prevention: The debate is intense, but the data are weak. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1979. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838702
Navar AM, Peterson ED. Evolving approaches for statins in primary prevention: Progress, but questions remain. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1981 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838704
↑ ^151.0 ^151.1 Stone NJ et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Nov 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24222016 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1770217
↑ ^152.0 ^152.1 Patel KK, Taksler GB, Hu B, Rothberg MB Prevalence of Elevated Cardiovascular Risks in Young Adults: A Cross-sectional Analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Ann Intern Med. May 16, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28505660 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2626465/prevalence-elevated-cardiovascular-risks-young-adults-cross-sectional-analysis-national
Ridker PM, Cook NR. Cholesterol Evaluation in Young Adults: Absence of Clinical Trial Evidence Is Not a Reason to Delay Screening. Ann Intern Med. May 16, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28505631 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2626468/cholesterol-evaluation-young-adults-absence-clinical-trial-evidence-reason-delay
↑ ^153.0 ^153.1 ^153.2 Kubota Y, Heiss G, MacLehose RF, Roetker NS, Folsom AR. Association of educational attainment with lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 12; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604921
Adler NE, Glymour M. Why we need to know patients' education. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 12 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604918
↑ ^154.0 ^154.1 Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Spiegelman D et al Healthful and Unhealthful Plant-Based Diets and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in U.S. Adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. vol 70, Issue 4, July 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28728684 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/70/4/411
Williams KA, Patel H Healthy Plant-Based Diet. What Does it Really Mean? J Am Coll Cardiol. vol 70, Issue 4, July 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28728685 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/70/4/423
↑ ^155.0 ^155.1 Gooding HC, Ning H, Gillman MW et al. Application of a lifestyle-based tool to estimate premature cardiovascular disease events in young adults: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jul 17 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28715555
↑ ^156.0 ^156.1 Lindholt JS, Sogaard R. Population screening and intervention for vascular disease in Danish men (VIVA): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2017 Aug 25; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28859943
Ayoub C, Murad MH. Population-based screening for vascular disease. Lancet 2017 Aug 25; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28859946
↑ ^157.0 ^157.1 Draft Recommendation Statement. Dec 2017 Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Screening With Electrocardiography. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/cardiovascular-disease-risk-screening-with-electrocardiography
Draft Evidence Review. Dec 2017 Draft Evidence Review for Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Screening With Electrocardiography. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/cardiovascular-disease-risk-screening-with-electrocardiography
↑ ^158.0 ^158.1 ^158.2 ^158.3 ^158.4 Peters SA, Woodward M Women's reproductive factors and incident cardiovascular disease in the UK Biobank. Heart. 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29335253 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2018/01/02/heartjnl-2017-312289
↑ ^159.0 ^159.1 ^159.2 ^159.3 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Recommendation Statement Cardiovascular Disease: Risk Assessment With Nontraditional Risk Factors. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/coronary-heart-disease-screening-using-non-traditional-risk-assessment
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Evidence Review for Cardiovascular Disease: Risk Assessment With Nontraditional Risk Factors https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/coronary-heart-disease-screening-using-non-traditional-risk-assessment
USPSTF Draft Recommendation Statement Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Evidence Review for Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index
↑ ^160.0 ^160.1 Mehlum MH, Liestol K, Kjeldsen SE et al Blood pressure variability and risk of cardiovascular events and death in patients with hypertension and different baseline risks. Eur Heart J. 2018 Jan 20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29365085
Weber MA. Blood pressure variability and cardiovascular prognosis: implications for clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2017 Oct 1;38(37):2823-2826. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28982228
↑ ^161.0 ^161.1 Wendling P. No CVD Benefit With Omega-3 Fatty Acids Medscape. Feb 02, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/892201
Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al. Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77,917 individuals. JAMA Cardiol. January 31, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29387889 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2670752
↑ ^162.0 ^162.1 ^162.2 Khan SS, Ning H, Wilkins JT et al Association of Body Mass Index With Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Compression of Morbidity. JAMA Cardiol. Published online February 28, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29490333 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2673289
↑ ^163.0 ^163.1 Panwar B, Judd SE, Wadley VG et al Association of Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 With Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease in Community-Living Adults. JAMA Cardiol. Published online March 7, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29516098 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2673604
↑ ^164.0 ^164.1 Hakulinen C, Pulkki-Raback L, Virtanen M, et al Social isolation and loneliness as risk factors for myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality: UK Biobank cohort study of 479,054 men and women. Heart. March 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29588329 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2018/03/16/heartjnl-2017-312663
↑ ^165.0 ^165.1 ^165.2 Brown AF, Liang LJ, Vassar SD et al. Trends in racial/ethnic and nativity disparities in cardiovascular health among adults without prevalent cardiovascular disease in the United States, 1988 to 2014. Ann Intern Med 2018 Mar 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554692
Mensah GA. The black-white cardiovascular health disparity is narrowing, but not for the reason you think. Ann Intern Med 2018 Mar 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554691
↑ ^166.0 ^166.1 Tikkanen E, Gustafsson S, Ingelsson E. Associations of Fitness, Physical Activity, Strength, and Genetic Risk With Cardiovascular Disease: Longitudinal Analyses in the UK Biobank Study. Circulation. April 9, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29632216 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2018/04/04/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032432
↑ ^167.0 ^167.1 Warren-Gash C et al. Laboratory-confirmed respiratory infections as triggers for acute myocardial infarction and stroke: A self-controlled case series analysis of national linked datasets from Scotland. Eur Respir J 2018 Mar; 51:1701794 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29563170 Free full text <Internet> http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/51/3/1701794
↑ ^168.0 ^168.1 ^168.2 Zhao D, Guallar E, Ouyang P et al Endogenous Sex Hormones and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Post-Menopausal Women. J Am Coll Cardiol 71(22): June 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29852978 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/71/22/2555
Miller VM, Mankad R Sex Steroids and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Post- Menopausal Women. New Perspective on an Old Controversy. J Am Coll Cardiol 71(22): June 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29852979 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/71/22/2567
Anderson P Testosterone May Be Key to CVD Risk in Women. Medscape. Jun 14, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/898073
↑ ^169.0 ^169.1 ^169.2 ^169.3 US Preventive Services Task Force Risk Assessment for Cardiovascular Disease With Nontraditional Risk Factors. US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. Published online July 10, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998297 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2687225
Lin JS, Evans CV, Johnson E, Redmond N, Coppola EL, Smith N. Nontraditional Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2018 Jul 10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998301
Wilkins JT, Lloyd-Jones DM. USPSTF Recommendations for Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk With Nontraditional Risk Factors. Finding the Right Tests for the Right Patients. JAMA. Published online July 10, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998347 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2687223
↑ Thanassoulis G, Sniderman AD, Pencina MJ. A long-term benefit approach vs. standard risk-based approaches for statin eligibility in primary prevention. JAMA Cardiol 2018 Oct 24 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30422172 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2706611
↑ ^171.0 ^171.1 Yano Y, Reis JP, Colangelo LA et al Association of Blood Pressure Classification in Young Adults Using the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Blood Pressure Guideline With Cardiovascular Events Later in Life. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1774-1782 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398601 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712542
Vasan RS High Blood Pressure in Young Adulthood and Risk of Premature Cardiovascular Disease. Calibrating Treatment Benefits to Potential Harm. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1760-1763 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398583 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712523
Fisher NDL, Curfman G Hypertension - A Public Health Challenge of Global Proportions. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1757-1759. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398584 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712524
↑ ^172.0 ^172.1 ^172.2 ^172.3 ^172.4 ^172.5 ^172.6 Phend C. AHA: Revised Lipid Guide Boosts PCSK9s, Coronary Calcium Scans. New recommendations aim to cut statins in low-risk primary prevention. Med Page Today. Nov 10, 2018 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/aha/76250
Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL et al 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: Executive summary J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39033-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423391 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000624
Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL et al 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 8. pii: S0735-1097(18)39034-X. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423393
Wilson PWF, Polonsky TS, Miedema MD, et al Systematic Review for the 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39035-1. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423394 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000626
Lloyd-Jones DM, Braun LT, Ndumele CE et al Use of risk assessment tools to guide decision-making in the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: A special report from the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39036-3. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423392
↑ ^173.0 ^173.1 Lu J, Lu Y, Yang H, Bilige W, Li Y, Schulz W, Masoudi FA, Krumholz HM. Characteristics of high cardiovascular risk in 1.7 million Chinese adults. Ann Intern Med 2019 Mar 5; 170:298. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30776800
Whelton PK, Colantonio LD. Cardiovascular disease risk estimation in China. Ann Intern Med 2019 Mar 5; 170:340 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30776799
↑ ^174.0 ^174.1 Toth PP, Philip S, Hull M, Granowitz C. Association of elevated triglycerides with increased cardiovascular risk and direct costs in statin-treated patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2019 Sep; 94:1670 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31405751 Free Article https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(19)30382-9/fulltext
↑ Chowdhury R, Khan H, Heydon E et al Adherence to cardiovascular therapy: a meta-analysis of prevalence and clinical consequences. Eur Heart J. 2013 Oct;34(38):2940-8. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23907142 Free Article
↑ ^176.0 ^176.1 Vidal-Petiot E et al. Cardiovascular event rates and mortality according to achieved systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with stable coronary artery disease: An international cohort study. Lancet 2016 Aug 30; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27590221
Mancia G. Should blood pressure reduction be aggressive in patient with hypertension and coronary artery disease? Lancet 2016 Aug 30 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27590220
↑ ^177.0 ^177.1 Fernandez-Jimenez R, Wang TJ, Fuster V, Blot WJ Low-Dose Aspirin for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Use Patterns and Impact Across Race and Ethnicity in the Southern Community Cohort Study. J Am Heart Assoc. Dec 11, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31822218 Free full text https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.119.013404
↑ ^178.0 ^178.1 ARUP Consult: Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk Markers The Physician's Guide to Laboratory Test Selection & Interpretation https://www.arupconsult.com/content/cardiovascular-disease-traditional-risk-markers
↑ ^179.0 ^179.1 Nikbakhtian S, Reed AB, Obika BD et al Accelerometer-derived sleep onset timing and cardiovascular disease incidence: a UK Biobank cohort study. European Heart Journal - Digital Health. 2021. Nov 9. Not indexed in PubMed https://academic.oup.com/ehjdh/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ehjdh/ztab088/6423198
↑ ^180.0 ^180.1 Bogaerts JMK, von Ballmoos LM, Achterberg WP et al Do we AGREE on the targets of antihypertensive drug treatment in older adults: a systematic review of guidelines on primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Age & Ageing, 2021. Oct 26 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34718378 https://academic.oup.com/ageing/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ageing/afab192/6410447
↑ ^181.0 ^181.1 Jacobs DR Jr et al. Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and adult cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2022 Apr 4; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35373933 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2109191
↑ ^182.0 ^182.1 Khan SU et al. PCSK9 inhibitors and ezetimibe with or without statin therapy for cardiovascular risk reduction: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2022 May 4; 377:e069116. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35508321 Free article https://www.bmj.com/content/377/bmj-2021-069116
Hao Q et al. PCSK9 inhibitors and ezetimibe for the reduction of cardiovascular events: A clinical practice guideline with risk-stratified recommendations. BMJ 2022 May 4; 377:e069066. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35508320 https://www.bmj.com/content/377/bmj-2021-069066
↑ ^183.0 ^183.1 Kim BK, Hong SJ, Lee YJ et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of moderate-intensity statin with ezetimibe combination therapy versus high-intensity statin monotherapy in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (RACING): A randomised, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2022 Jul 30; 400:380 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35863366 https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)00916-3/fulltext
↑ ^184.0 ^184.1 Tattersall MC, Dasiewicz AS, McClelland RL Persistent Asthma Is Associated With Carotid Plaque in MESA. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022. Nov 23 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36416156 Free article https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.122.026644
↑ ^185.0 ^185.1 Hong SJ, Lee YJ, Lee SJ et al Treat-to-Target or High-Intensity Statin in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2023;329(13):1078-1087. March 6 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36877807 PMCID: PMC9989958 (available on 2023-09-06)
↑ ^186.0 ^186.1 Karam G et al. Comparison of seven popular structured dietary programmes and risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events in patients at increased cardiovascular risk: Systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2023 Mar 29; 380:e072003. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36990505 PMCID: PMC10053756 Free PMC article https://www.bmj.com/content/380/bmj-2022-072003
↑ ^187.0 ^187.1 ^187.2 ^187.3 ^187.4 NEJM Knowledge+
Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2019;140:e596-646. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30879355
Liu EY, Al-Sofiani ME, Yeh HC et al Use of Preventive Aspirin Among Older US Adults With and Without Diabetes. JAMA Netw Open. 2021 Jun 1;4(6):e2112210. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34152419 PMCID: PMC5182195 Free PMC article.
↑ ^188.0 ^188.1 Huang ES, Meigs JB, Singer DE. The effect of interventions to prevent cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 2001 Dec 1;111(8):633-42. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11755507
↑ ^189.0 ^189.1 Zheng T, et al. Constipation is associated with an increased risk of major adverse cardiac events in a UK population. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2024 Oct 1;327(4):H956-H964. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39150392

[ref1-1] 1.00 ^1.01 ^1.02 ^1.03 ^1.04 ^1.05 ^1.06 ^1.07 ^1.08 ^1.09 ^1.10 ^1.11 ^1.12 ^1.13 ^1.14 ^1.15 ^1.16 ^1.17 ^1.18 ^1.19 ^1.20 ^1.21 ^1.22 ^1.23 ^1.24 ^1.25 ^1.26 ^1.27 ^1.28 ^1.29 ^1.30 ^1.31 ^1.32 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.

[ref2-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Journal Watch 20(18):142, 2000 Danesh J et al Low grade inflammation and coronary heart disease: prospective study and updated meta-analyses. BMJ 321:199, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10903648

[ref3-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Journal Watch 24(12):97, 2004 Lloyd-Jones DM, Nam BH, D'Agostino RB Sr, Levy D, Murabito JM, Wang TJ, Wilson PW, O'Donnell CJ. Parental cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: a prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA. 2004 May 12;291(18):2204-11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15138242

[ref4-4] 4.0 ^4.1 Journal Watch 24(22):159, 2004
Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, McQueen M, Budaj A, Pais P, Varigos J, Lisheng L; INTERHEART Study Investigators. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 11;364(9438):937-52. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364185 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol364/iss9438/full/llan.364.9438.primary_research.30683.1
Rosengren A, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Sliwa K, Zubaid M, Almahmeed WA, Blackett KN, Sitthi-amorn C, Sato H, Yusuf S; INTERHEART investigators. Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11119 cases and 13648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 11;364(9438):953-62. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364186 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol364/iss9438/full/llan.364.9438.primary_research.30684.1

[ref5-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Journal Watch 24(21):159, 2004
Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, Rami T, Brancati FL, Powe NR, Golden SH. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):421-31. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381515
Khaw KT, Wareham N, Bingham S, Luben R, Welch A, Day N. Association of hemoglobin A1c with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):413-20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381514
Gerstein HC. Glycosylated hemoglobin: finally ready for prime time as a cardiovascular risk factor. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Sep 21;141(6):475-6. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381522
Meinert CL et al A study of the effects of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes: II. Mortality results. Diabetes 1970; 19:Suppl:789. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4926376
Gerstein HC et al Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008 Jun 12; 358:2545 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539917 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802743
Patel A et al Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008 Jun 12; 358:2560. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539916 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802987
Duckworth W et al Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009 Jan 8; 360:129. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19092145 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0808431
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998 Sep 12; 352:837. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9742976
Montori VM and Fernandez-Balsells M. Glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: Time for an evidence- based about-face? Ann Intern Med 2009 Jun 2; 150:803. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19380837
Lehman R and Krumholz HM. Tight control of blood glucose in long standing type 2 diabetes. BMJ 2009 Apr 18; 338:901. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19264821 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b800
Havas S. The ACCORD trial and control of blood glucose level in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Time to challenge conventional wisdom. Arch Intern Med 2009 Jan 26; 169:150. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19171811
Haynes RB and Haynes GA. What does it take to put an ugly fact through the heart of a beautiful hypothesis? Evid Based Med 2009 Jun; 14:68. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19483017 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/NEJMoa0805796v1

[ref6-6] 6.0 ^6.1 Kistorp C, Raymond I, Pedersen F, Gustafsson F, Faber J, Hildebrandt P. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, C-reactive protein, and urinary albumin levels as predictors of mortality and cardiovascular events in older adults. JAMA. 2005 Apr 6;293(13):1609-16. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811980

[ref7-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, Glass TR, Bucher HC. Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Apr 11;165(7):725-30. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15824290

[ref8-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Journal Watch 25(9):73-74, 2005 Margolis KL, Manson JE, Greenland P, Rodabough RJ, Bray PF, Safford M, Grimm RH Jr, Howard BV, Assaf AR, Prentice R; Women's Health Initiative Research Group. Leukocyte count as a predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Mar 14;165(5):500-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15767524

[ref9-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Journal Watch 25(11):88, 2005 Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, Grayston JT, Muhlestein B, Giugliano RP, Cairns R, Skene AM; Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 Investigators. Antibiotic treatment of Chlamydia pneumoniae after acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1646-54. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843667
Grayston JT, Kronmal RA, Jackson LA, Parisi AF, Muhlestein JB, Cohen JD, Rogers WJ, Crouse JR, Borrowdale SL, Schron E, Knirsch C; ACES Investigators. Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1637-45. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843666
Anderson JL. Infection, antibiotics, and atherothrombosis--end of the road or new beginnings? N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 21;352(16):1706-9. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15843674

[ref10-10] Marcovitz PA, Tran HH, Franklin BA, O'Neill WW, Yerkey M, Boura J, Kleerekoper M, Dickinson CZ. Usefulness of bone mineral density to predict significant coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 2005 Oct 15;96(8):1059-63. Epub 2005 Aug 22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16214438

[ref11-11] 11.0 ^11.1 Murabito JM et al, Sibling cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged aged adults. JAMA 2005, 294:3117 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16380592

[ref12-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Kshirsagar AV et al. Blood pressure usually considered normal is associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease. Am J Med 2006 Feb; 119:133-41. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16443415

[ref13-13] 13.0 ^13.1 Internal Medicine World Report 21(2) 2006

[ref14-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Foody JM et al, Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors in older persons with acute myocardial infarction: Evidence for age- statin interaction J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54:421 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16551308

[ref15-15] 15.0 ^15.1 Yan LL et al, Education, 15 year risk-factor progression and coronary artery calcium in young adulthood and early middle age: The coronary artery risk development of young adults study. JAMA 2006; 295:1793 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16622141

[ref16-16] Rodondi N, Peng T, Karter AJ, Bauer DC, Vittinghoff E, Tang S, Pettitt D, Kerr EA, Selby JV. Therapy modifications in response to poorly controlled hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 4;144(7):475-84. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16585661
Perlin JB, Pogach LM. Improving the outcomes of metabolic conditions: managing momentum to overcome clinical inertia. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 4;144(7):525-7. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16585667

[ref17-17] 17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 Solomon DH et al, Cardiovascular outcomes in new users of coxibs and non- steroidal antiinflammatory drugs: High-risk subgroups and time course of risk. Arthritis Rheum 2006; 54:1378 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16645966

[ref18-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Estruch R, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Corella D, Salas-Salvado J, Ruiz-Gutierrez V, Covas MI, Fiol M, Gomez-Gracia E, Lopez-Sabater MC, Vinyoles E, Aros F, Conde M, Lahoz C, Lapetra J, Saez G, Ros E; PREDIMED Study Investigators. Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Jul 4;145(1):1-11. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2006 Jul 4;145(1):I11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818923

[ref19-19] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Arnlov J et al, Endogenous sex hormones and cardiovascular disease incidence in men Ann Intern Med 2006, 145:176 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16880459

[ref20-20] 20.0 ^20.1 Brouilette SW et al, Telomere length, risk of coronary artery disease, and statin treatment in the West of Scottlan Primary Prevention Study: A nested case-control study. Lancet 2007, 369:107 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17223473

[ref21-21] 21.0 ^21.1 Morgan TM, Krumholz HM, Lifton RP, Spertus JA. Nonvalidation of reported genetic risk factors for acute coronary syndrome in a large-scale replication study. JAMA. 2007 Apr 11;297(14):1551-61. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17426274

[ref22-22] 22.0 ^22.1 Barter P et al. HDL cholesterol, very low levels of LDL cholesterol, and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2007 Sep 27; 357:1301. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17898099

[ref23-23] 23.0 ^23.1 van den Akker et al, Glucocorticoid receptor gene and risk of cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:33 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18195193

[ref24-24] 24.0 ^24.1 Kathiresan S, Melander O, Anevski D, Guiducci C et al Polymorphisms associated with cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008 Mar 20;358(12):1240-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18354102
Kathiresan S et al, Six new loci associated with blood low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol or triglycerides in humans. Nat Genet 2008, 40:189 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18193044

[ref25-25] 25.0 ^25.1 King CR et al, Short Sleep Duration and Incident Coronary Artery Calcification JAMA. 2008;300(24):2859-2866. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19109114

[ref26-26] 26.0 ^26.1 ^26.2 ^26.3 Eguchi K et al. Short sleep duration as an independent predictor of cardiovascular events in Japanese patients with hypertension. Arch Intern Med 2008 Nov 10; 168:2225. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19001199

[ref27-27] 27.0 ^27.1 Criqui MH et al, Progression of arterial disease predicts cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008 52:1736 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007695
Hiatt WR Can measuring the ankle-brachial index improve public health? J Am Coll Cardiol 2008 52:1743 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007696

[ref28-28] 28.0 ^28.1 de Ruijter W et al Use of Framingham risk score and new biomarkers to predict cardiovascular mortality in older people: Population based observational cohort study. BMJ 2009 Jan 8; 338:a3083. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131384 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a3083

[ref29-29] Journal Watch General Medicine February 19, 2009 Commentary - Paul S. Mueller, MD, MPH, FACP
Hsia J et al. Resting heart rate as a low tech predictor of coronary events in women: Prospective cohort study. BMJ 2009 Feb 3; 338:b219 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19193613 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b219

[ref30-30] 30.0 ^30.1 Briel M et al Association between change in high density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. BMJ 2009 Feb 16; 338:b92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b92 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19221140

[ref31-31] 31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 Triant VA et al. Association of C-reactive protein and HIV infection with acute myocardial infarction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009 Apr 21; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19387353

[ref32-32] 32.0 ^32.1 Leunissen RW et al Timing and Tempo of First-Year Rapid Growth in Relation to Cardiovascular and Metabolic Risk Profile in Early Adulthood. JAMA. 2009;301(21):2234-2242. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19491185

[ref33-33] 33.0 ^33.1 Grunfeld C et al Preclinical atherosclerosis due to HIV infection: Carotid intima-medial thickness measurements from the FRAM study. AIDS 2009 May 18; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19455012

[ref34-34] 34.0 ^34.1 Djousse L et al Relation between modifiable lifestyle factors and lifetime risk of heart failure. JAMA 2009 Jul 22/29; 302:394. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19622818

[ref35-35] 35.0 ^35.1 Heitmann BL Thigh circumference and risk of heart disease and premature death: prospective cohort study BMJ 2009;339:b3292 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19729416 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/339/sep03_2/b3292

[ref36-36] Arriola L et al, Alcohol intake and the Risk of coronary heart disease in the Spanish EPIC cohort study Heart. Published Online First: 19 November 2009. http://doi:10.1136/hrt.2009.173419

[ref37-37] 37.0 ^37.1 Rauchenzauner M et al. Arrhythmias and increased neuro-endocrine stress response during physicians' night shifts: A randomized cross-over trial. Eur Heart J 2009 Nov; 30:2606. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19602503

[ref38-38] 38.0 ^38.1 Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM. Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Jan 20. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20089734
Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Jan 13. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20071648

[ref39-39] 39.0 ^39.1 LA Times, Feb 14, 2010

[ref40-40] 40.0 ^40.1 Selvin E et al Glycated Hemoglobin, Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Risk in Nondiabetic Adults N Eng J Med 2010 362:800-811 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20200384 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/362/9/800

[ref41-41] 41.0 ^41.1 de Oliveira C et al Toothbrushing, inflammation, and risk of cardiovascular disease: results from Scottish Health Survey BMJ 2010;340:c2451 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20508025 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/340/may27_1/c2451

[ref42-42] 42.0 ^42.1 ^42.2 Fosbol EL et al Cause-Specific Cardiovascular Risk Associated With Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs Among Healthy Individuals. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes published online Jun 8, 2010; DOI:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.861104 http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/cgi/rapidpdf/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.861104v1.pdf

[ref43-43] 43.0 ^43.1 Mente A et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk of acute myocardial infarction: A case-control study of 26,903 subjects from 52 countries. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 May 25; 55:2390. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20488312 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2009.12.053

[ref44-44] The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies The Lancet 2010, 375(9733):2215-2222 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20609967 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9

[ref45-45] 45.0 ^45.1 Lee M et al Low glomerular filtration rate and risk of stroke: meta-analysis BMJ 2010; 341:c4249 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20884696 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c4249.full
Di Angelantonio E et al Chronic kidney disease and risk of major cardiovascular disease and non-vascular mortality: prospective population based cohort study BMJ 2010; 341:c4986 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20884698 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c4986.full

[ref46-46] 46.0 ^46.1 Zoungas S et al, Severe Hypoglycemia and Risks of Vascular Events and Death N Engl J Med 2010; 363:1410-1418 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20925543 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1003795

[ref47-47] 47.0 ^47.1 Hoen PW et al. Differential associations between specific depressive symptoms and cardiovascular prognosis in patients with stable coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 Sep 7; 56:838 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20813281

[ref48-48] 48.0 ^48.1 ^48.2 Minassian C et al Invasive dental treatment and risk for vascular events: a self-controlled case series. Ann Intern Med. 2010 Oct 19;153(8):499-506. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20956706
Lockhart PB et al AHA Scientific Statement Periodontal Disease and Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease: Does the Evidence Support an Independent Association? A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association Circulation April 18, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22514251 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/04/18/CIR.0b013e31825719f3
Humphrey LL, Fu R, Buckley DI, Freeman M, Helfand M. Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2008 Dec;23(12):2079-86. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18807098

[ref49-49] 49.0 ^49.1 Kharazmi E et al Pregnancy loss and risk of cardiovascular disease: a prospective population-based cohort study (EPIC-Heidelberg) Heart doi:10.1136/hrt.2010.202226 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21123827 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2010/10/28/hrt.2010.202226.short

[ref50-50] 50.0 ^50.1 Ruidavets J-B et al. Patterns of alcohol consumption and ischaemic heart disease in culturally divergent countries: The Prospective Epidemiological Study of Myocardial Infarction (PRIME). BMJ 2010 Nov 23; 341:c6077 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21098615

[ref51-51] 51.0 ^51.1 ^51.2 ^51.3 ^51.4 ^51.5 ^51.6 ^51.7 Greenland P et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010 Dec 14/21; 56:e50. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21144964

[ref52-52] 52.0 ^52.1 Stamatakis E et al. Screen-based entertainment time, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular events: Population-based study with ongoing mortality and hospital events follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011 Jan 18; 57:292. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21232666

[ref53-53] 53.0 ^53.1 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Separate and combined associations of body-mass index and abdominal adiposity with cardiovascular disease: Collaborative analysis of 58 prospective studies. Lancet 2011 Mar 26; 377:1085. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21397319

[ref54-54] 54.0 ^54.1 Clase CM et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria as predictors of outcomes in patients with high cardiovascular risk: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2011 Mar 1; 154:310 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/PMID: 21357908

[ref55-55] 55.0 ^55.1 Huxley RR and Woodward M Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 11 August 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21839503 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)60781-2/fulltext

[ref56-56] 56.0 ^56.1 WebMD: Is Diet Soda Linked to Heart, Stroke Risk? Study Suggests Connection Between Drinking Diet Soda and Risk of Heart Attack and Stroke http://www.webmd.com/stroke/news/20110209/is-diet-soda-linked-to-heart-stroke-risk

[ref57-57] 57.0 ^57.1 O'Donnell MJ et al. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA 2011 Nov 23/30; 306:2229 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22110105
Whelton PK. Urinary sodium and cardiovascular disease risk: Informing guidelines for sodium consumption. JAMA 2011 Nov 23/30; 306:2262 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22110109

[ref58-58] Berry JD et al Lifetime Risks of Cardiovascular Disease N Engl J Med 2012; 366:321-329, January 26, 2012 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22276822

[ref59-59] 59.0 ^59.1 Charchar FJ et al Inheritance of coronary artery disease in men: an analysis of the role of the Y chromosome The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 9 February 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22325189 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61453-0/fulltext
Miller VM Family matters: sexual dimorphism in cardiovascular disease The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 9 February 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22325188 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60200-1/fulltext

[ref60-60] 60.0 ^60.1 Guallar-Castillon P et al. Consumption of fried foods and risk of coronary heart disease: Spanish cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. BMJ 2012 Jan 24; 344:e363 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22275385
Leitzmann MF and Kurth T. Fried foods and the risk of coronary heart disease. BMJ 2012 Jan 24; 344:d8274. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22275384

[ref61-61] 61.0 ^61.1 Campos-Rodriguez F et al. Cardiovascular mortality in women with obstructive sleep apnea with or without continuous positive airway pressure treatment: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2012 Jan 17; 156:115. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22250142

[ref62-62] Lee D-C et al. Changes in fitness and fatness on the development of cardiovascular disease risk factors: Hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012 Feb 14; 59:665. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22322083

[ref63-63] 63.0 ^63.1 Qureshi N et al. Effect of adding systematic family history enquiry to cardiovascular disease risk assessment in primary care: A matched-pair, cluster randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2012 Feb 21; 156:253. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351711
Berg AO. Family history gets a boost. Ann Intern Med 2012 Feb 21; 156:315. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351717

[ref64-64] 64.0 ^64.1 Auer R et al. Association of major and minor ECG abnormalities with coronary heart disease events. JAMA 2012 Apr 11; 307:1497 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22496264
Greenland P. Should the resting electrocardiogram be ordered as a routine risk assessment test in healthy asymptomatic adults? JAMA 2012 Apr 11; 307:1530. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22496268

[ref65-65] 65.0 ^65.1 Bukowski R et al. Delivery of a small for gestational age infant and greater maternal risk of ischemic heart disease. PLoS ONE 2012 Mar; 7:e33047. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431995

[ref66-66] 66.0 ^66.1 ^66.2 Kavousi M et al. Evaluation of newer risk markers for coronary heart disease risk classification: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2012 Mar 20; 156:438 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431676
Hlatky MA. Framework for evaluating novel risk markers. Ann Intern Med 2012 Mar 20; 156:468. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22431679

[ref67-67] 67.0 ^67.1 He M, Wolpin B, Rexrode K et al ABO Blood Group and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Two Prospective Cohort Studies ATVBAHA.112.248757, August 14, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22895671 <Internet> http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/08/14/ATVBAHA.112.248757.abstract

[ref68-68] 68.0 ^68.1 Huang C et al Effects of Extreme Temperatures on Years of Life Lost for Cardiovascular Deaths: A Time Series Study in Brisbane, Australia Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 2012; 5: 609-614 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22991346 <Internet> http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/5/5/609.abstract

[ref69-69] 69.0 ^69.1 ^69.2 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration C-Reactive Protein, Fibrinogen, and Cardiovascular Disease Prediction N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1310-1320 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23034020 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1107477

[ref70-70] 70.0 ^70.1 Bangalore S et al. for the REACH Registry Investigators. beta-blocker use and clinical outcomes in stable outpatients with and without coronary artery disease. JAMA 2012 Oct 3; 308:1340. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23032550

[ref71-71] 71.0 ^71.1 Sesso HD et al. Multivitamins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: The Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2012 Nov 7; 308:1751. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23117775

[ref72-72] 72.0 ^72.1 Wilkins JT et al. Lifetime risk and years lived free of total cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2012 Nov 7; 308:1795. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2311778

[ref73-73] 73.0 ^73.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Oct 6;151(7):474-82 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19805770

[ref74-74] 74.0 ^74.1 Michaelsson K et al Long term calcium intake and rates of all cause and cardiovascular mortality: community based prospective longitudinal cohort study. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23403980 BMJ 2013;346:f228 http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f228

[ref75-75] 75.0 ^75.1 Williams PT and Thompson PD Walking Versus Running for Hypertension, Cholesterol, and Diabetes Mellitus Risk Reduction. Atherosclerosis/Lipoproteins. April 4 , 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23559628 <Internet> http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/04/04/ATVBAHA.112.300878.abstract

[ref76-76] 76.0 ^76.1 Sode BF et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism and myocardial infarction associated with factor V Leiden and prothrombin mutations and blood type. CMAJ 2013 Mar 19; 185:E229. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23382263

[ref77-77] 77.0 ^77.1 Levine GN et al Pet Ownership and Cardiovascular Risk: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. May 9, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23661721 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/05/09/CIR.0b013e31829201e1.full.pdf+html

[ref78-78] 78.0 ^78.1 Reis JP et al Association Between Duration of Overall and Abdominal Obesity Beginning in Young Adulthood and Coronary Artery Calcification in Middle Age. JAMA. 2013;310(3):280-288 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23860986 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1713590

[ref79-79] 79.0 ^79.1 Palmer TM et al Association of plasma uric acid with ischaemic heart disease and blood pressure: mendelian randomisation analysis of two large cohorts. BMJ 2013;347:f4262 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23869090 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f4262

[ref80-80] 80.0 ^80.1 Gami AS et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk of sudden cardiac death: A longitudinal study of 10,701 adults. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Jun 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23770166 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109713022511

[ref81-81] Corson MA. Emerging inflammatory markers for assessing coronary heart disease risk. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2009 Nov;11(6):452-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19863870

[ref82-82] Forouhi NG, Sattar N. CVD risk factors and ethnicity--a homogeneous relationship? Atheroscler Suppl. 2006 Apr;7(1):11-9. Epub 2006 Feb 24. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16500156

[ref83-83] 83.0 ^83.1 Virtanen M et al. Perceived job insecurity as a risk factor for incident coronary heart disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2013 Aug 8; 347:f4746 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23929894 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f4746

[ref84-84] Moon KA et al Association Between Exposure to Low to Moderate Arsenic Levels and Incident Cardiovascular Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. Published online 24 September 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24061511 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1740759

[ref85-85] 85.0 ^85.1 Spring B et al Better Population Health Through Behavior Change in Adults. A call to action. Circulation. October 7, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24100544 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/10/07/01.cir.0000435173.25936.e1.full.pdf+html

[ref86-86] 86.0 ^86.1 ^86.2 Malhotra A et al Saturated fat is not the major issue. BMJ 2013;347:f6340 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24149521 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6340

[ref87-87] Goff DC Jr et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guidelines on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Nov 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24222018 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1770220

[ref88-88] 88.0 ^88.1 Bigal ME, Kurth T, Santanello N et al Migraine and cardiovascular disease: a population-based study. Neurology. 2010 Feb 23;74(8):628-35 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20147658

[ref89-89] 89.0 ^89.1 Breuer J et al Herpes zoster as a risk factor for stroke and TIA: A retrospective cohort study in the UK. Neurology. Jan 2, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24384645 <Internet> http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2014/01/02/WNL.0000000000000038.full.pdf+html

[ref90-90] 90.0 ^90.1 Bethel K et al Fluid phase biopsy for detection and characterization of circulating endothelial cells in myocardial infarction. Phys. Biol. 2014. 11 016002 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24406475 <Internet> http://iopscience.iop.org/1478-3975/11/1/016002/article

[ref91-91] Physician's First Watch, Feb 7, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org Journal of the American Society of Nephrology article
Hsu CY and Liu KD Cardiovascular Events after AKI: A New Dimension. JASN, Feb 6, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24503240 <Internet> http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2014/02/05/ASN.2013121276.full

[ref92-92] 92.0 ^92.1 Christoffersen M et al. Visible age-related signs and risk of ischemic heart disease in the general population: A prospective cohort study. Circulation 2013 Dec 13 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24334176 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/12/13/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.001696

[ref93-93] 93.0 ^93.1 Teeuw WJ, Slot DE, Susanto H et al Treatment of periodontitis improves the atherosclerotic profile: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Periodontol. 2014 Jan;41(1):70-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24111886

[ref94-94] 94.0 ^94.1 Soloway B NEJM Journal Watch. March 13, 2014 Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Peters SAE et al. Diabetes as a risk factor for stroke in women compared with men: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 64 cohorts, including 775 385 individuals and 12 539 strokes. Lancet 2014 Mar 7; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24613026 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2960040-4/fulltext

[ref95-95] 95.0 ^95.1 ^95.2 The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration Glycated Hemoglobin Measurement and Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA. 2014;311(12):1225-1233. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24668104 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1852370

[ref96-96] 96.0 ^96.1 Post WS et al Associations Between HIV Infection and Subclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(7):458-467 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687069 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1852867
Currier JS and Stein JH HIV and Atherosclerosis: Moving From Associations to Mechanisms and Interventions. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687073 Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(7):509-510. http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1852877

[ref97-97] 97.0 ^97.1 Parker DR et al Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Among Postmenopausal Women with Prior Pregnancy Loss: The Women's Health Initiative. Ann Fam Med July/August 2014 vol. 12 no. 4 302-309 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25024237 <Internet> http://www.annfammed.org/content/12/4/302.full

[ref98-98] 98.0 ^98.1 Haycock PC et al. Leucocyte telomere length and risk of cardiovascular disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014 Jul 8; 349:g4227 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25006006 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g4227

[ref99-99] 99.0 ^99.1 Luckhaupt SE et al Prevalence of Coronary Heart Disease or Stroke Among Workers Aged < 55 years - United States 2008-2012. MMWR Weekly. August 1, 2014 / 63(30);645-649 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6330a1.htm

[ref100-100] 100.0 ^100.1 The Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration Blood pressure-lowering treatment based on cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. The Lancet, 384(9943): 591-598, 16 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25131978 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961212-5/abstract

[ref101-101] 101.0 ^101.1 LeFevre ML et al. Behavioral counseling to promote a healthful diet and physical activity for cardiovascular disease prevention in adults with cardiovascular risk factors: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2014 Oct 21; 161:587 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25155419 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1899533

[ref102-102] 102.0 ^102.1 ^102.2 Tivesten A et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate predict the 5-year risk of coronary heart disease events in elderly men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 Oct 28; 64:1801 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25443702 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109714059403
Sutton NR and Pinsky DJ. Sex steroid as a new oracle to predict cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 Oct 28; 64:1811. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25443703 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109714059397

[ref103-103] 103.0 ^103.1 The Myocardial Infarction Genetics Consortium Investigators Inactivating Mutations in NPC1L1 and Protection from Coronary Heart Disease. N Engl J Med. Nov 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25390462 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1405386

[ref104-104] 104.0 ^104.1 Ikeda Y et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in Japanese patients 60 years or older with atherosclerotic risk factors: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014 Nov 17 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25401325 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1936801

[ref105-105] 105.0 ^105.1 Husten L, Fairchild DG, Di Francesco L HDL Function, Not Level, Looks Like the Key Physician's First Watch, Nov 19, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Rohatgi A et al HDL Cholesterol Efflux Capacity and Incident Cardiovascular Events. N Engl J Med. Nov 18, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404125 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1409065

[ref106-106] 106.0 ^106.1 Varvarigou V et al Law enforcement duties and sudden cardiac death among police officers in United States: case distribution study. BMJ 2014;349:g6534 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25406189 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g6534

[ref107-107] 107.0 ^107.1 ^107.2 Akesson A, Larsson SC, Discacciati A, Wolk A. Low-risk diet and lifestyle habits in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257629 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1909605
Mozaffarian D. The promise of lifestyle for cardiovascular health. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257630

[ref108-108] 108.0 ^108.1 Adabag S et al Obesity related risk of sudden cardiac death in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Heart Nov 19, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25410499 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2014/10/30/heartjnl-2014-306238
Reinier K, Chugh SS Obesity and sudden death: visceral response? Heart Nov 19, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25502517 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2014/11/21/heartjnl-2014-306921

[ref109-109] 109.0 ^109.1 Husten L, Hefner JE High Rate of Inappropriate Use of Aspirin for Primary Prevention. Physician's First Watch, Jan 13, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Hira RS et al Frequency and Practice-Level Variation in Inappropriate Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(2):111-121 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593051 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2089094
Verheugt FWA The Role of the Cardiologist in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease With Aspirin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(2):122-124 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593052 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2089095

[ref110-110] 110.0 ^110.1 Burgess Record N et al Community-Wide Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Programs and Health Outcomes in a Rural County, 1970-2010. JAMA. 2015;313(2):147-155 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25585326 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2089352
Labarthe DR, Stamler J Improving Cardiovascular Health in a Rural Population. Can Other Communities Do the Same? JAMA. 2015;313(2):139-140 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25585322 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2089334

[ref111-111] 111.0 ^111.1 ^111.2 Corrales-Medina VF et al Association Between Hospitalization for Pneumonia and Subsequent Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA. 2015;313(3):264-274. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25602997 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2091304

[ref112-112] 112.0 ^112.1 Yano Y, Stamler J, Garside DB et al Isolated Systolic Hypertension in Young and Middle-Aged Adults and 31-Year Risk for Cardiovascular Mortality. The Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65(4):327-335 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25634830 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2091726

[ref113-113] 113.0 ^113.1 ^113.2 ^113.3 Ogdie A et al. Risk of major cardiovascular events in patients with psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis: A population- based cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 2015 Feb; 74:326. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25351522 <Internet> http://ard.bmj.com/content/74/2/326

[ref114-114] 114.0 ^114.1 Laukkanen T et al Association Between Sauna Bathing and Fatal Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality Events. JAMA Intern Med. Published online February 23, 2015. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25705824 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130724

[ref115-115] 115.0 ^115.1 Clarson LE et al. Increased risk of vascular disease associated with gout: A retrospective, matched cohort study in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Ann Rheum Dis 2015 Apr; 74:642 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165032 <Internet> http://ard.bmj.com/content/74/4/642

[ref116-116] 116.0 ^116.1 Young K, Sadoughi S. Saitz R Model Predicts Country-Specific CVD Mortality Risk Physician's First Watch, March 26, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587%2815%2970007-0/abstract

[ref117-117] 117.0 ^117.1 Nelson CP et al Genetically Determined Height and Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med. April 8, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25853659 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1404881

[ref118-118] 118.0 ^118.1 The NNT: Vitamin and Antioxidant Supplements for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. http://www.thennt.com/nnt/vitamins-and-antioxidants-for-primary-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease/
Myung SK, Ju W, Cho B et al Efficacy of vitamin and antioxidant supplements in prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2013 Jan 18;346:f10. doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1136/bmj.f10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23335472
Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Mar 14;3:CD007176 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22419320
Marti-Carvajal AJ, Sola I, Lathyris D et al Homocysteine-lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jan 31;1:CD006612. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440809
Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, Gamble GD, Reid IR. Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women's Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011;342:d2040. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21505219

[ref119-119] 119.0 ^119.1 Sumner JA et al Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Predict Onset of Cardiovascular Events in Women. Circulation. June 29, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26124186 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/06/23/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.014492.abstract

[ref120-120] 120.0 ^120.1 ^120.2 Orciari Herman A, Fairchild DG, Hefner JE Blood Pressure Variability Tied to Increased Risk for CVD, Mortality. Physician's First Watch, July 28, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Stevens SL, Wood S, Koshiaris C et al. Blood pressure variability and cardiovascular disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2016 Aug 9; 354:i4098 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27511067 Free PMC Article

[ref121-121] 121.0 ^121.1 Goldstein BI et al Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder Predispose Youth to Accelerated Atherosclerosis and Early Cardiovascular Disease. A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. Aug 10, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26260736 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/08/10/CIR.0000000000000229.full.pdf+html

[ref122-122] 122.0 ^122.1 ^122.2 de Souza RJ et al Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ 2015;351:h3978 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26268692 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h3978

[ref123-123] Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH et al 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 1;63(25 Pt B):2889-934 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239923

[ref124-124] 124.0 ^124.1 ^124.2 NIH News and Events. Sept 11, 2015 Landmark NIH study shows intensive blood pressure management may save lives. http://www.nih.gov/news/health/sep2015/nhlbi-11.htm

[ref125-125] US Preventive Services Task Force Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement JAMA. 2022 Apr 26;327(16):1577-1584 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35471505

[ref126-126] 126.0 ^126.1 Chow CK, Redfern J, Hillis GS et al Effect of Lifestyle-Focused Text Messaging on Risk Factor Modification in Patients With Coronary Heart Disease. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015;314(12):1255-1263. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26393848 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2442937
Eapen ZJ, Peterson ED Can Mobile Health Applications Facilitate Meaningful Behavior Change? Time for Answers. JAMA. 2015;314(12):1236-1237 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26393844 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2442914

[ref127-127] 127.0 ^127.1 Sahakyan KR et al Normal-Weight Central Obesity: Implications for Total and Cardiovascular Mortality. Ann Intern Med. Published online 10 November 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551006 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468805
Poirier P The Many Paradoxes of Our Modern World: Is There Really an Obesity Paradox or Is It Only a Matter of Adiposity Assessment? Ann Intern Med. Published online 10 November 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26551376 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468808

[ref128-128] 128.0 ^128.1 Gomez E, Fernandez-Alvira JM, Vilanova M et al A Comprehensive Lifestyle Peer-Group-Based Intervention on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: The Randomized Controlled Fifty-Fifty Program. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;() <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26562047 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=2468916

[ref129-129] 129.0 ^129.1 Juonala M, Pulkki-Raback L, Elovainio M, et al. Childhood psychosocial factors and coronary artery calcification in adulthood: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA Pediatr 2016 Mar 14 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26974359 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2502623

[ref130-130] 130.0 ^130.1 Mu F, Rich-Edwards J, Rimm EB et al Endometriosis and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. Circulation. March 29, 2016 http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/early/2016/03/29/CIRCOUTCOMES.115.002224.abstract

[ref131-131] 131.0 ^131.1 Lloyd-Jones DM et al 2016 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on the Role of Non-Statin Therapies for LDL-Cholesterol Lowering in the Management of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. April 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27046161 Free Article <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=2510936#tab1

[ref132-132] Bibbins-Domingo K on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Colorectal Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. Published online 12 April 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27064677 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2513179

[ref133-133] 133.0 ^133.1 Tsuyuki RT et al. Effectiveness of community pharmacist prescribing and care on cardiovascular risk reduction: Randomized controlled RxEACH trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016 Apr 4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27058907

[ref134-134] Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD et al 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 1;63(25 Pt B):2960-84. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239922 Free Article

[ref135-135] 135.0 ^135.1 ^135.2 Rana JS et al. Diabetes and prior coronary heart disease are not necessarily risk equivalent for future coronary heart disease events. J Gen Intern Med 2016 Apr; 31:387 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26666660

[ref136-136] 136.0 ^136.1 Kaufman JD et al. Association between air pollution and coronary artery calcification within six metropolitan areas in the USA (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution): A longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 2016 May 24; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27233746
Brunekreef B, Hoffmann B. Air pollution and heart disease. Lancet 2016 May 24 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27233744

[ref137-137] 137.0 ^137.1 Salisbury C, O'Cathain A, Thomas C et al. Telehealth for patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2016 Jun 1; 353:i2647 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27252245 Free PMC Article

[ref138-138] 138.0 ^138.1 ^138.2 Damen JA, Hooft L, Schuit E et al Prediction models for cardiovascular disease risk in the general population: Systematic review. BMJ 2016;353:i2416 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27184143 Free PMC Article
Holt T. Predicting cardiovascular disease: An over-abundance of risk models offering few real benefits to patients. BMJ 2016;353:i2621 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27185596

[ref139-139] 139.0 ^139.1 ^139.2 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2016
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 11th edition (GRS11) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2022
Fleg JL, Forman DE, Berra K et al Secondary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in older adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013 Nov 26;128(22):2422-46. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24166575 Free PMC Article

[ref140-140] 140.0 ^140.1 Chan FK, Leung Ki EL, Wong GL et al. Risks of bleeding recurrence and cardiovascular events with continued aspirin use after lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastroenterology 2016 Aug; 151:271. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27130815

[ref141-141] 141.0 ^141.1 Muka T, Oliver-Williams C, Kunutsor S et al Association of Age at Onset of Menopause and Time Since Onset of Menopause With Cardiovascular Outcomes, Intermediate Vascular Traits, and All-Cause MortalityA Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol. Published online September 14, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27627190 <Internet> http://cardiology.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2551981
Manson JE, Woodruff TK Reproductive Health as a Marker of Subsequent Cardiovascular Disease. The Role of Estrogen. JAMA Cardiol. Published online September 14, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27626902 <Internet> http://cardiology.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2551979

[ref142-142] 142.0 ^142.1 Mansouri B, Kivelevitch D, Natarajan B et al Comparison of Coronary Artery Calcium Scores Between Patients With Psoriasis and Type 2 Diabetes. JAMA Dermatol. Published online August 24, 2016. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27556410 <Internet> http://archderm.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2546028

[ref143-143] 143.0 ^143.1 Rodriguez F, Maron DJ, Knowles JW et al Association Between Intensity of Statin Therapy and Mortality in Patients With Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Cardiol. Published online November 9, 2016 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27829091
Bonow RO, Yancy CW. High-Intensity Statins for Secondary Prevention. JAMA Cardiol. 2016 Nov 9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27829079

[ref144-144] 144.0 ^144.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) Draft Recommendation Statement Healthful Diet and Physical Activity for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Adults Without Known Risk Factors: Behavioral Counseling. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/healthful-diet-and-physical-activity-for-cardiovascular-disease-prevention-in-adults-without-known-risk-factors-behavioral-counseling

[ref145-145] 145.0 ^145.1 Whitman IR, Agarwal V, Nah G et al Alcohol Abuse and Cardiac Disease J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 1, Jan 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28057245 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/1/13
Criqui MH, Thomas IC Alcohol Consumption and Cardiac Disease. Where Are We Now? J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 1, Jan 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28057246 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/1/25

[ref146-146] 146.0 ^146.1 ^146.2 Miller PE, Zhao D, Frazier-Wood AC et al. Associations of coffee, tea, and caffeine intake with coronary artery calcification and cardiovascular events. Am J Med 2017 Feb; 130:188 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27640739 <Internet> http://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(16)30925-1/abstract

[ref147-147] 147.0 ^147.1 ^147.2 ^147.3 Micha R, Penalvo JL, Cudhea F et al. Association between dietary factors and mortality from heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes in the United States. JAMA 2017 Mar 7; 317:912 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28267855

[ref148-148] 148.0 ^148.1 ^148.2 ^148.3 Scragg R, Stewart AW, Waayer D et al Effect of Monthly High-Dose Vitamin D Supplementation on Cardiovascular Disease in the Vitamin D Assessment Study. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Cardiol. Published online April 5, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26365555 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2615260
Hernandez AF, Harrington RA, M O'Donnell CJ. Integrating Research With Clinical Practice. Keeping It Simple. JAMA Cardiol. Published online April 5, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28384692 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2615258

[ref149-149] 149.0 ^149.1 Celis-Morales CA, Lyall DM, Welsh P et al Association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2017;357:j1456 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28424154 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1456
Andersen LB Active commuting is beneficial for health. BMJ 2017;357:j1740 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28424155 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1740

[ref150-150] 150.0 ^150.1 US Preventive Services Task Force Statin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults. US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2016;316(19):1997-2007. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838723 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2584058
Chou R, Dana T, Blazina I et al Statins for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults. Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838722 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2584058
Greenland P, Bonow RO. Interpretation and use of another statin guideline. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1977. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838703
Redberg RF, Katz MH. Statins for primary prevention: The debate is intense, but the data are weak. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1979. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838702
Navar AM, Peterson ED. Evolving approaches for statins in primary prevention: Progress, but questions remain. JAMA 2016 Nov 15; 316:1981 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27838704

[ref151-151] 151.0 ^151.1 Stone NJ et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013 Nov 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24222016 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1770217

[ref152-152] 152.0 ^152.1 Patel KK, Taksler GB, Hu B, Rothberg MB Prevalence of Elevated Cardiovascular Risks in Young Adults: A Cross-sectional Analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Ann Intern Med. May 16, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28505660 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2626465/prevalence-elevated-cardiovascular-risks-young-adults-cross-sectional-analysis-national
Ridker PM, Cook NR. Cholesterol Evaluation in Young Adults: Absence of Clinical Trial Evidence Is Not a Reason to Delay Screening. Ann Intern Med. May 16, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28505631 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2626468/cholesterol-evaluation-young-adults-absence-clinical-trial-evidence-reason-delay

[ref153-153] 153.0 ^153.1 ^153.2 Kubota Y, Heiss G, MacLehose RF, Roetker NS, Folsom AR. Association of educational attainment with lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 12; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604921
Adler NE, Glymour M. Why we need to know patients' education. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 12 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604918

[ref154-154] 154.0 ^154.1 Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Spiegelman D et al Healthful and Unhealthful Plant-Based Diets and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in U.S. Adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. vol 70, Issue 4, July 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28728684 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/70/4/411
Williams KA, Patel H Healthy Plant-Based Diet. What Does it Really Mean? J Am Coll Cardiol. vol 70, Issue 4, July 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28728685 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/70/4/423

[ref155-155] 155.0 ^155.1 Gooding HC, Ning H, Gillman MW et al. Application of a lifestyle-based tool to estimate premature cardiovascular disease events in young adults: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jul 17 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28715555

[ref156-156] 156.0 ^156.1 Lindholt JS, Sogaard R. Population screening and intervention for vascular disease in Danish men (VIVA): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2017 Aug 25; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28859943
Ayoub C, Murad MH. Population-based screening for vascular disease. Lancet 2017 Aug 25; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28859946

[ref157-157] 157.0 ^157.1 Draft Recommendation Statement. Dec 2017 Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Screening With Electrocardiography. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/cardiovascular-disease-risk-screening-with-electrocardiography
Draft Evidence Review. Dec 2017 Draft Evidence Review for Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Screening With Electrocardiography. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/cardiovascular-disease-risk-screening-with-electrocardiography

[ref158-158] 158.0 ^158.1 ^158.2 ^158.3 ^158.4 Peters SA, Woodward M Women's reproductive factors and incident cardiovascular disease in the UK Biobank. Heart. 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29335253 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2018/01/02/heartjnl-2017-312289

[ref159-159] 159.0 ^159.1 ^159.2 ^159.3 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Recommendation Statement Cardiovascular Disease: Risk Assessment With Nontraditional Risk Factors. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/coronary-heart-disease-screening-using-non-traditional-risk-assessment
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Evidence Review for Cardiovascular Disease: Risk Assessment With Nontraditional Risk Factors https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/coronary-heart-disease-screening-using-non-traditional-risk-assessment
USPSTF Draft Recommendation Statement Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Evidence Review for Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index

[ref160-160] 160.0 ^160.1 Mehlum MH, Liestol K, Kjeldsen SE et al Blood pressure variability and risk of cardiovascular events and death in patients with hypertension and different baseline risks. Eur Heart J. 2018 Jan 20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29365085
Weber MA. Blood pressure variability and cardiovascular prognosis: implications for clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2017 Oct 1;38(37):2823-2826. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28982228

[ref161-161] 161.0 ^161.1 Wendling P. No CVD Benefit With Omega-3 Fatty Acids Medscape. Feb 02, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/892201
Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al. Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77,917 individuals. JAMA Cardiol. January 31, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29387889 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2670752

[ref162-162] 162.0 ^162.1 ^162.2 Khan SS, Ning H, Wilkins JT et al Association of Body Mass Index With Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Compression of Morbidity. JAMA Cardiol. Published online February 28, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29490333 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2673289

[ref163-163] 163.0 ^163.1 Panwar B, Judd SE, Wadley VG et al Association of Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 With Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease in Community-Living Adults. JAMA Cardiol. Published online March 7, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29516098 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2673604

[ref164-164] 164.0 ^164.1 Hakulinen C, Pulkki-Raback L, Virtanen M, et al Social isolation and loneliness as risk factors for myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality: UK Biobank cohort study of 479,054 men and women. Heart. March 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29588329 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2018/03/16/heartjnl-2017-312663

[ref165-165] 165.0 ^165.1 ^165.2 Brown AF, Liang LJ, Vassar SD et al. Trends in racial/ethnic and nativity disparities in cardiovascular health among adults without prevalent cardiovascular disease in the United States, 1988 to 2014. Ann Intern Med 2018 Mar 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554692
Mensah GA. The black-white cardiovascular health disparity is narrowing, but not for the reason you think. Ann Intern Med 2018 Mar 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554691

[ref166-166] 166.0 ^166.1 Tikkanen E, Gustafsson S, Ingelsson E. Associations of Fitness, Physical Activity, Strength, and Genetic Risk With Cardiovascular Disease: Longitudinal Analyses in the UK Biobank Study. Circulation. April 9, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29632216 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2018/04/04/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032432

[ref167-167] 167.0 ^167.1 Warren-Gash C et al. Laboratory-confirmed respiratory infections as triggers for acute myocardial infarction and stroke: A self-controlled case series analysis of national linked datasets from Scotland. Eur Respir J 2018 Mar; 51:1701794 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29563170 Free full text <Internet> http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/51/3/1701794

[ref168-168] 168.0 ^168.1 ^168.2 Zhao D, Guallar E, Ouyang P et al Endogenous Sex Hormones and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Post-Menopausal Women. J Am Coll Cardiol 71(22): June 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29852978 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/71/22/2555
Miller VM, Mankad R Sex Steroids and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Post- Menopausal Women. New Perspective on an Old Controversy. J Am Coll Cardiol 71(22): June 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29852979 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/71/22/2567
Anderson P Testosterone May Be Key to CVD Risk in Women. Medscape. Jun 14, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/898073

[ref169-169] 169.0 ^169.1 ^169.2 ^169.3 US Preventive Services Task Force Risk Assessment for Cardiovascular Disease With Nontraditional Risk Factors. US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. Published online July 10, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998297 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2687225
Lin JS, Evans CV, Johnson E, Redmond N, Coppola EL, Smith N. Nontraditional Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2018 Jul 10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998301
Wilkins JT, Lloyd-Jones DM. USPSTF Recommendations for Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk With Nontraditional Risk Factors. Finding the Right Tests for the Right Patients. JAMA. Published online July 10, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29998347 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2687223

[ref170-170] Thanassoulis G, Sniderman AD, Pencina MJ. A long-term benefit approach vs. standard risk-based approaches for statin eligibility in primary prevention. JAMA Cardiol 2018 Oct 24 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30422172 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2706611

[ref171-171] 171.0 ^171.1 Yano Y, Reis JP, Colangelo LA et al Association of Blood Pressure Classification in Young Adults Using the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Blood Pressure Guideline With Cardiovascular Events Later in Life. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1774-1782 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398601 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712542
Vasan RS High Blood Pressure in Young Adulthood and Risk of Premature Cardiovascular Disease. Calibrating Treatment Benefits to Potential Harm. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1760-1763 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398583 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712523
Fisher NDL, Curfman G Hypertension - A Public Health Challenge of Global Proportions. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1757-1759. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30398584 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2712524

[ref172-172] 172.0 ^172.1 ^172.2 ^172.3 ^172.4 ^172.5 ^172.6 Phend C. AHA: Revised Lipid Guide Boosts PCSK9s, Coronary Calcium Scans. New recommendations aim to cut statins in low-risk primary prevention. Med Page Today. Nov 10, 2018 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/aha/76250
Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL et al 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: Executive summary J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39033-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423391 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000624
Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL et al 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 8. pii: S0735-1097(18)39034-X. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423393
Wilson PWF, Polonsky TS, Miedema MD, et al Systematic Review for the 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39035-1. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423394 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000626
Lloyd-Jones DM, Braun LT, Ndumele CE et al Use of risk assessment tools to guide decision-making in the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: A special report from the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 3. pii: S0735-1097(18)39036-3. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423392

[ref173-173] 173.0 ^173.1 Lu J, Lu Y, Yang H, Bilige W, Li Y, Schulz W, Masoudi FA, Krumholz HM. Characteristics of high cardiovascular risk in 1.7 million Chinese adults. Ann Intern Med 2019 Mar 5; 170:298. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30776800
Whelton PK, Colantonio LD. Cardiovascular disease risk estimation in China. Ann Intern Med 2019 Mar 5; 170:340 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30776799

[ref174-174] 174.0 ^174.1 Toth PP, Philip S, Hull M, Granowitz C. Association of elevated triglycerides with increased cardiovascular risk and direct costs in statin-treated patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2019 Sep; 94:1670 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31405751 Free Article https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(19)30382-9/fulltext

[ref175-175] Chowdhury R, Khan H, Heydon E et al Adherence to cardiovascular therapy: a meta-analysis of prevalence and clinical consequences. Eur Heart J. 2013 Oct;34(38):2940-8. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23907142 Free Article

[ref176-176] 176.0 ^176.1 Vidal-Petiot E et al. Cardiovascular event rates and mortality according to achieved systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with stable coronary artery disease: An international cohort study. Lancet 2016 Aug 30; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27590221
Mancia G. Should blood pressure reduction be aggressive in patient with hypertension and coronary artery disease? Lancet 2016 Aug 30 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27590220

[ref177-177] 177.0 ^177.1 Fernandez-Jimenez R, Wang TJ, Fuster V, Blot WJ Low-Dose Aspirin for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Use Patterns and Impact Across Race and Ethnicity in the Southern Community Cohort Study. J Am Heart Assoc. Dec 11, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31822218 Free full text https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.119.013404

[ref178-178] 178.0 ^178.1 ARUP Consult: Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk Markers The Physician's Guide to Laboratory Test Selection & Interpretation https://www.arupconsult.com/content/cardiovascular-disease-traditional-risk-markers

[ref179-179] 179.0 ^179.1 Nikbakhtian S, Reed AB, Obika BD et al Accelerometer-derived sleep onset timing and cardiovascular disease incidence: a UK Biobank cohort study. European Heart Journal - Digital Health. 2021. Nov 9. Not indexed in PubMed https://academic.oup.com/ehjdh/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ehjdh/ztab088/6423198

[ref180-180] 180.0 ^180.1 Bogaerts JMK, von Ballmoos LM, Achterberg WP et al Do we AGREE on the targets of antihypertensive drug treatment in older adults: a systematic review of guidelines on primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Age & Ageing, 2021. Oct 26 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34718378 https://academic.oup.com/ageing/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ageing/afab192/6410447

[ref181-181] 181.0 ^181.1 Jacobs DR Jr et al. Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and adult cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2022 Apr 4; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35373933 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2109191

[ref182-182] 182.0 ^182.1 Khan SU et al. PCSK9 inhibitors and ezetimibe with or without statin therapy for cardiovascular risk reduction: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2022 May 4; 377:e069116. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35508321 Free article https://www.bmj.com/content/377/bmj-2021-069116
Hao Q et al. PCSK9 inhibitors and ezetimibe for the reduction of cardiovascular events: A clinical practice guideline with risk-stratified recommendations. BMJ 2022 May 4; 377:e069066. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35508320 https://www.bmj.com/content/377/bmj-2021-069066

[ref183-183] 183.0 ^183.1 Kim BK, Hong SJ, Lee YJ et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of moderate-intensity statin with ezetimibe combination therapy versus high-intensity statin monotherapy in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (RACING): A randomised, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2022 Jul 30; 400:380 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35863366 https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)00916-3/fulltext

[ref184-184] 184.0 ^184.1 Tattersall MC, Dasiewicz AS, McClelland RL Persistent Asthma Is Associated With Carotid Plaque in MESA. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022. Nov 23 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36416156 Free article https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.122.026644

[ref185-185] 185.0 ^185.1 Hong SJ, Lee YJ, Lee SJ et al Treat-to-Target or High-Intensity Statin in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2023;329(13):1078-1087. March 6 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36877807 PMCID: PMC9989958 (available on 2023-09-06)

[ref186-186] 186.0 ^186.1 Karam G et al. Comparison of seven popular structured dietary programmes and risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events in patients at increased cardiovascular risk: Systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2023 Mar 29; 380:e072003. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36990505 PMCID: PMC10053756 Free PMC article https://www.bmj.com/content/380/bmj-2022-072003

[ref187-187] 187.0 ^187.1 ^187.2 ^187.3 ^187.4 NEJM Knowledge+
Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2019;140:e596-646. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30879355
Liu EY, Al-Sofiani ME, Yeh HC et al Use of Preventive Aspirin Among Older US Adults With and Without Diabetes. JAMA Netw Open. 2021 Jun 1;4(6):e2112210. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34152419 PMCID: PMC5182195 Free PMC article.

[ref188-188] 188.0 ^188.1 Huang ES, Meigs JB, Singer DE. The effect of interventions to prevent cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 2001 Dec 1;111(8):633-42. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11755507

[ref189-189] 189.0 ^189.1 Zheng T, et al. Constipation is associated with an increased risk of major adverse cardiac events in a UK population. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2024 Oct 1;327(4):H956-H964. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39150392

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

cardiovascular risk factor

Contents

Etiology

Epidemiology

Laboratory

Diagnostic procedures

Radiology

Management

Notes

More general terms

More specific terms

Additional terms

References

Navigation menu

cardiovascular risk factor

Etiology

Epidemiology

Laboratory

Diagnostic procedures

Radiology

Management

Notes

More general terms

More specific terms

Additional terms

References

Navigation menu

Search