healthy diet
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Epidemiology
Complications
- suboptimal intake of dietary factors (fruits, vegetables, whole grains, sodium, nuts & seeds, processed meats) accounted for 45.4% of U.S. cardiovascular mortality in 2012
- encouraging adolescents to diet is counterproductive[23]
- as adults, they are more likely to have unhealthy weight control behaviors & to encourage their own children to diet, thus perpetuating the cycle into the next generation
- marginal increase in serum insulin, serum glucose & blood pressure in hispanics who ate dinner late[27]
- diets with wide variety of foods not necessarily healthiest[25]
- may increase calorie consumption & weight gain in adults[25]
Management
adherence to a healthy diet
- a healthy diet is linked to slower biological aging & reduced risk of dementia[33]
- dietary diversity is a component of a healthy diet[35]
- replacing highly processed foods with copious salt, sugar & other additives with fruits, vegetables, nuts, beans, lentils, seafood & whole grains has health benefits at any age[31]
- a healthy diet consists of more fish, fruits, vegetables, whole grains[22]
- a healthy diet may reduce risk of chronic disease
- greater adherence to 4 healthy eating patterns (Healthy Eating Index 2015, Alternate Mediterranean Diet, Healthful Plant-Based Diet Index, Alternate Healthy Eating Index) can reduce risk of death 20%[32]
- consuming more whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts & legumes can reduce death from cancer, cardiovascular illness, respiratory disease & neurodegenerative disease[32]
- Lancet's 'Planetary Health Diet' & Frances Moore Lappe's 'Diet for a Small Planet' integrate the concepts of a healthy diet with enviromental impact of dietary choices
- improved diet quality over 12 years decreases mortality[18]
- more frequent family dinners tied to healthier diets in young people[28]
- a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy, seafood, legumes, & nuts & low in red or processed meats, sugar-sweetened foods & beverages, & refined grains (see Mediterranean diet)[13]
- high intake of vegetables, fruit, whole grains, nuts, dairy, & fish with low intake of sugar-containing beverages is associated with larger brain volume, gray matter volume, white matter volume, & hippocampal volume[24]
- not associated with white matter lesions or lacunar infarcts
- improved intakes of polyunsaturated fats & nuts & seeds & lower intake of sugar-sweetened beverages reduced diet-related cardiovascular mortality in the U.S. by 25% from 2002-2012[17]
- consumption of spicy food at least 3X/week associated with 14% lower mortality[15]
- reduction in mortality due to cancer, ischemic heart disease, respiratory disease[15]
- chili peppers most commonly used spice[15]
- limit daily consumption of added sugars (<10% of calories), saturated fat (<10% of calories), & dietary sodium (<2300 mg)[13]
- restriction of red meat & processed meat consumption may diminish cancer-related mortality, cardiovascular mortality & overall mortality[3]
- reduce total fat intake to < 30% of calories
- restrict saturated fats to less than 10% of calories[4]
- trans-fatty acids may have simliar effects to saturated fat
- dietary fat from plants may be associated with lower cardiovascular & overall mortality than animal fats including eggs & dairy[38]
- increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids may improve outcomes
- consume < 300 mg of dietary cholesterol daily[4]
- U.S. guidelines that limit dietary cholesterol to 300 mg/day will be lifted[12]
- high carbohydrate diet associated with increased mortality relative to high fat diet[19]
- moderate carbohydrate intake (50-55% of calories) associated with lowest mortality[26]
- mortality highest with lowest-carbohydrate diet followed by highest carbohydrate diet
- low carbohydrate diets high in animal protein or fat associated with increased mortality
- low carbohydrate diets high in plant protein or fat associated with decreased mortality[26]
- limit daily sodium consumption to less than 2300 mg[4]
- high-risk groups (> 50 years, black, hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney diseases) should consume less than 1500 mg
- see DASH diet
- >= all grain intake should come from whole grains[13]
- replace refined grains with whole grains[4]
- restrict consumption of solid fats & added sugars[4]
- eat a variety of fruits & vegetables & more of them[4]
- higher fruit, vegetable, & legume consumption associated with lower risk of non-cardiovascular, & total mortality[20]
- fruit intake associated with lower risk of cardiovascular, non-cardiovascular, & total mortality[20]
- legume intake associated with lower risk of non-cardiovascular mortality & total mortality[20]
- raw vegetable intake strongly associated with lower risk of total mortality[20]
- cooked vegetables associated with modest benefit on mortality[20]
- replace some meat & poultry with seafood[4]
- nutrients with favorable effects on cognitive function & brain health from the Mediterranean Diet include fatty acids, antioxidants, carotenoids & vitamins[37]
- dietary patterns associated with diminished mortality have charactertics of Mediterranean diet & DASH diet[30]
- higher consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, whole grains, unsaturated vegetable oils, fish
- low in red meat, processed meat, high-fat dairy, & refined carbohydrates or sweets
- intake of alcoholic beverages in moderation
- Mediterranean diet & DASH diet rated best diets[21]
- combination of a Mediterranean diet with a DASH diet is called a MIND diet
- Mediterranean diet rated best overall diet & easiest to follow[29]
- healthy living diet in association with intermittent fasting appears to provide benefits in insulin resistance & brain aging[36]
alcohol, coffee, calorie restriction, fasting
- calorie restriction may improve overall health
- intermittent fasting independent of calorie intake may improve overall health[14]
- limit alcohol to one drink per day for women & two for men[4]
- up to 5 cups of coffee daily is not associated with adverse effects in most adults[13]
World Health Organization, Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
- principles of a healthy diet[39]
- adequate
- providing enough essential nutrients to prevent deficiencies & promote health without excess
- balanced
- in energy intake, & energy sources (fats, carbohydrates & proteins) to promote healthy weight, growth* & disease prevention
- the inclusion of growth would suggest that pinciple is applicable to children
- moderate
- diverse
- including a wide variety of nutritious foods within & across food groups to favor nutritional adequacy & consumption of other health promoting substances
- adequate
More specific terms
- anti-inflammatory diet
- Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet
- healthy living diet
- Mediterranean diet
- Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) diet
- National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) step 1 diet
- National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) step 2 diet
- pescovegetarian diet
- plant-based diet
- portfolio diet
- vegetarian diet
Additional terms
References
- ↑ Veterans Administration
- ↑ Gidding SS, Dennison BA, Birch LL, Daniels SR, Gilman MW, Lichtenstein AH, Rattay KT, Steinberger J, Stettler N, Van Horn L; American Heart Association; American Academy of Pediatrics. Dietary recommendations for children and adolescents: a guide for practitioners: consensus statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2005 Sep 27;112(13):2061-75. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16186441 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/112/13/2061
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Sinha R et al Meat Intake and Mortality: A Prospective Study of Over Half a Million People Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(6):562-571 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19307518 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/169/6/562
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of Agriculture DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS, 2010, Executive Summary http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/ExecSumm.pdf corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Dec 2015
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of Agriculture DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS, 2010, full summary http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Dec 2015 - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Oyebode O et al Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause, cancer and CVD mortality: analysis of Health Survey for England data. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014 Mar 31 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687909 <Internet> http://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2014/03/03/jech-2013-203500
Kypridemos C et al Fruit and vegetable consumption and non-communicable disease: time to update the '5 a day' message? J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014 Mar 31 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24687908 - ↑ US Department of Agriculture US Department of Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 2010. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf
2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/executive-summary/ - ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J et al Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2014;349:g4490 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25073782 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g4490
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Varraso R et al Alternate Healthy Eating Index 2010 and risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among US women and men: prospective study. BMJ 2015;350:h286 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25649042 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h286
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Akesson A, Larsson SC, Discacciati A, Wolk A. Low-risk diet and lifestyle habits in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257629 <Internet> http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1909605
Mozaffarian D. The promise of lifestyle for cardiovascular health. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25257630 - ↑ 10.0 10.1 Larsson SC, Akesson A, Wolk A. Healthy diet and lifestyle and risk of stroke in a prospective cohort of women. Neurology. 2014 Nov 4;83(19):1699-704 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25298305
- ↑ 2014 DGAC Meeting 7. December 15, 2015 Science Base Chapter. Food and Nutrient Intakes, and Health: Current Status and Trends. Subcommittee 1. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-BINDER/meeting7/docs/DGAC-Meeting-7-SC-1.pdf
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Husten L, Sadoughi S, Saitz R New U.S. Guidelines Will Lift Limits on Dietary Cholesterol. Physician's First Watch, Feb 12, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
2014 DGAC: Meeting 7. December 15, 2015 Science Base Chapter. Food and Nutrient Intakes, and Health: Current Status and Trends. Suncommittee 1. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-BINDER/meeting7/docs/DGAC-Meeting-7-SC-1.pdf - ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. February 2015. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Fontana L, Partridge L Promoting Health and Longevity through Diet: From Model Organisms to Humans. Cell. 2015 Mar 26;161(1):106-118. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25815989 <Internet> http://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674%2815%2900186-5.pdf
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Lv J, Qi L, Yu C et at Consumption of spicy foods and total and cause specific mortality: population based cohort study. BMJ 2015;351:h3942 http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h3942
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Rehm CD, Penalvo JL, Afshin A, Mozaffarian D. Dietary intake among US adults, 1999-2012. JAMA 2016 Jun 21; 315:2542. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27327801
Denke MA. Changing dietary habits and improving the healthiness of diets in the United States. JAMA 2016 Jun 21; 315:2527 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27327799 - ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Micha R, Penalvo JL, Cudhea F et al. Association between dietary factors and mortality from heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes in the United States. JAMA 2017 Mar 7; 317:912 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28267855
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Sotos-Prieto M, Bhupathiraju SN, Mattei J et al Association of Changes in Diet Quality with Total and Cause- Specific Mortality. N Engl J Med 2017; 377:143-153. July 13, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28700845 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1613502
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Dehghan M, Mente A, Zhang X et al Associations of fats and carbohydrate intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 18 countries from five continents (PURE): a prospective cohort study. Lancet. Aug 29, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28864332 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32252-3/fulltext
Ramsden CE, Domenichiello AF PURE study challenges the definition of a healthy diet: but key questions remain. Lancet. 2017 Aug 28 pii: S0140-6736(17)32252-3 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28864330 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32241-9/fulltext - ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Miller V, Mente A, Dehghan M, Rangarajan S et al Fruit, vegetable, and legume intake, and cardiovascular disease and deaths in 18 countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2017 Aug 28. pii: S0140-6736(17)32253-5 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28864331
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Orciari Herman A, Sadoughi S, Saitz R DASH and Mediterranean Diets Tie for Best Overall Diet. Physician's First Watch, Jan 4, 2018 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
US News. Best Diets. Jan 3, 2018 https://health.usnews.com/best-diet - ↑ 22.0 22.1 Joffe A Does a Healthy Diet Protect Against Depression in Adolescence? NEJM Journal Watch. Jan 26, 2018 Massachusetts Medical Society (subscription needed) http://www.jwatch.org
Oddy WH, Allen KL, Trapp GSA et al. Dietary patterns, body mass index and inflammation: Pathways to depression and mental health problems in adolescents. Brain Behav Immun 2018 Jan 12; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29339318 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889159118300023 - ↑ 23.0 23.1 Berge JM, Winkler MR, Larson N et al. Intergenerational transmission of parent encouragement to diet from adolescence into adulthood. Pediatrics 2018 Mar 6; 141:e20172955. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29511051 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/03/02/peds.2017-2955
Bauer KW , Lumeng JC, Sonneville KR et al. Parenting in an obesogenic environment: Ghosts at the dinner table. Pediatrics 2018 Mar 6; 141:e20180233 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29511050 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/03/02/peds.2018-0233 - ↑ 24.0 24.1 George J. Better Diet Tied to Bigger Brains. Dutch study shows association between food and brain structure. MedPage Today. May 16, 2018 https://www.medpagetoday.com/primarycare/dietnutrition/72915
Croll PH, Voortman T, Ikram MA et al Better diet quality relates to larger brain tissue volumes. The Rotterdam Study Neurology. May 16, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29769374 <Internet> http://n.neurology.org/content/early/2018/05/16/WNL.0000000000005691 - ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 de Oliveira Otto MC, Anderson CAM, Dearborn JL et al Dietary Diversity: Implications for Obesity Prevention in Adult Populations. A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018 138: August PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30354383 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000595
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Seidelmann SB, Claggett B, Cheng S et al Dietary carbohydrate intake and mortality: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health. Aug 16, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30122560 Free full text https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(18)30135-X/fulltext
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Lyles A AHA: Late Meals Linked to HTN, Prediabetes. MedPage Today. Nov 6, 2018 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/aha/76164
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Walton K, Horton N, Rifas-Shiman SL et al Exploring the Role of Family Functioning in the Association Between Frequency of Family Dinners and Dietary Intake Among Adolescents and Young Adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(7):e185217. Nov 21, 2018 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2715616
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Best Diets 2019 U.S. News https://health.usnews.com/best-diet
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 English LK et al. Evaluation of dietary patterns and all-cause mortality: A systematic review. JAMA Netw Open 2021 Aug 2; 4:e2122277. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34463743 Free article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2783625
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Sotos-Prieto M et al Association of Changes in Diet Quality with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality. N Engl J Med 2017; 377:143-153 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28700845 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1613502 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5589446/
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Shan Z, Wang F, Li Y et al Healthy Eating Patterns and Risk of Total and Cause-Specific Mortality. JAMA Intern Med. Published online January 9, 2023 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36622660 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2800411
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Thomas A, Ryan CP, Caspi A, Diet, Pace of Biological Aging, and Risk of Dementia in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Neurol. 2024 Feb 26. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38407506
- ↑ Yeung SSY, Kwan M, Woo J. Healthy Diet for Healthy Aging. Nutrients. 2021 Nov 29;13(12):4310. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34959862 Free PMC article. Review.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Li Y, Wang L, Jigeer G et al Healthy Lifestyle and the Likelihood of Becoming a Centenarian. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(6):e2417931. June 20 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38900423 Free article. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2820220
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Anderson P Two Diets Linked to Improved Cognition, Slowed Brain Aging. Medscape; July 25, 2024 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/two-diets-linked-improved-cognition-slowed-brain-aging-2024a1000dqj
Kapogiannis D, Manolopoulos A, Mullins R et al Brain responses to intermittent fasting and the healthy living diet in older adults. Cell Metab. 2024 Jun 19:S1550-4131(24)00225-0. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38901423 https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/abstract/S1550-4131(24)00225-0 - ↑ 37.0 37.1 Zwilling CE, Wu J, Barbey AK. Investigating nutrient biomarkers of healthy brain aging: a multimodal brain imaging study. NPJ Aging. 2024 May 21;10(1):27. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38773079 PMCID: PMC11109270 Free PMC article. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-024-00150-8
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Zhao B, Gan L, Graubard BI et al Plant and Animal Fat Intake and Overall and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2024 Aug 12:e243799. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39133482 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 World Health Organization, Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations What are healthy diets? Joint statement by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization Geneva: World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2024. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2223en. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/379324/9789240101876-eng.pdf
- ↑ U.S. Department of Agriculture Center for Nutrition Policy & Promotion Healthy Eating Index (HEI) https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/healthyeatingindex