coffee
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Introduction
Beverage consumed for caffeine content.
Adverse effects
- up to 5 cups of coffee daily is not associated with adverse effects in most adults[10]
- 4 cups of coffee daily is not associated with adverse effects in men[25]
- 4 cups of coffee daily may be associated with increased risk of fractures in women[25]
- >= 6 cups of coffee/day is associated with smaller brain volume, 53% increased risk for dementia, & 17% increased risk of stroke[38]
- coffee not likely associated with increased risk of cancer
- >3 cups/day increases risk of pancreatic cancer[15]
- high coffee consumption is associated with a reduced pancreatic cancer risk[16]
- no association of coffee and pancreatic cancer[17]
- coffee is not a carcinogen[18]
- no association between coffee or caffeine consumption & cardiovascular events[19]
- no increase in premature atrial contractions or supraventricular tachycardia[41][47]
- 1 cup of coffee/day may be associated with increased risk for premature ventricular contractions[41]
- neither habitual coffee consumption nor genetically mediated differences in caffeine metabolism was associated with an increased risk of cardiac arrhythmias[37]
- high coffee consumption in pregnancy was linked to pregnancy loss, low birth weight, & preterm birth[25]
- genetic variant in CYP1A2 resulting in slow metabolism of caffeine increases risk of albuminuria, hyperfiltration, & hypertension in heavy coffee consumers (> 3 cups/day)[46]
- caffeinated coffee consumption associated with less sleep, but more daily steps[47]
Mechanism of action
- 115 metabolites associated with coffee intake[26]
- 82 mapped to one of 33 biological pathways
- enrichment of metabolite members of 5 pathways
- xanthine metabolism: includes caffeine metabolites
- benzoate metabolism: polyphenols from gut microbiota metabolism
- steroid: may reflect phytosterol content of coffee
- fatty acid metabolism (acylcholine)
- endocannabinoid[26]
- regular coffee drinking enhances alertness & concentration & improves motor control by inducing fMRI changes in connectivity with resultant functional changes in the brain[32]
- coffee increases brain activity involved in short-term memory, attention & focus
Notes
- regular consumption of caffeinated coffee may reduce risk of diabetes mellitus type 2[2][3][8]
- relative risk = 0.7 for 4-5 cups/day; 0.5 for > 6 cups/day
- consuming coffee without (or with less) sugar may help lower daily calorie intake without restrictive dieting[22]
- both regular & decaffeinated coffee appeared to lower risk for type 2 diabetes[25]
- may reduce risk of ischemic stroke[4][8]
- >= 6 cups/day may increase risk of stroke (RR=1.17)[38]
- 1/2 to 3 cups/day for middle-age adults without heart disease lowers 10 year risk for stroke (21%) or death (12%)[40]
- may reduce risk of depression in women[5]
- inversely associated with mortality (dose-dependent)[6]
- mortality risks actually higher with coffee consumption until adjusted for smoking (common among coffee drinkers)[6]
- mortality benefit even after accounting for risk factors smoking, alcohol, age, & weight[34]
- RR=0.90 for men; 0.85 for women
- RR=0.7 lowest for 3-4 cups/day (unsweetened) & 2-3 cups (sugar-sweetened)[44]
- 1-5 cups/day may reduce all-cause mortality[8][11] RR=0.91-0.95
- reduced risk also apparent with decaffeinated coffee[11]
- 3 cups of coffee/day (regular or decaffeinated) associated with 17% reduction in overall mortality[25]
- RR = 0,94 (1 cup/day); RR = 0.82 (2-3 cups/day); RR = 0.79 (4-5 cups/day); RR = 0.84 (>= 6 cups/day)[14]
- among never smokers, coffee appears protective against mortality due to cardiovascular events and neurologic diseases & suicide[11]
- caffeinated coffee was linked to lower risks for cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, & stroke, with benefits highest at 3-5 cups daily[25]
- inverse associations were observed for deaths from
- heart disease, chronic respiratory diseases, pneumonia, influenza, diabetes mellitus, suicide
- death from cancer is not diminished[14]
- caffeinated coffee associated with lower risks for cancer & liver disease[25]
- coffee consumption inversely associated with mortality among Europeans, Californians, Hawaiians[21]
- exception is native Hawaiians[21]
- coffee drinking is inversely associated with mortality, including among those drinking 8 or more cups per day & those with genetic polymorphisms indicating slower or faster caffeine metabolism[28]
- noncaffeine constituents in the coffee-mortality association likely play a role
- reduced risk of heart failure (2-4 cups/day)[7][39]
- moderate coffee consumption associated with lower coronary artery calcium[9]
- expresso coffee linked to higher total serum cholesterol 0.08 mmol/L (3.5 mg/dL) for women & 0.16 mmol/L (6.2 mg/dL) men[43]
- reduced risk of colorectal cancer (both caffeinated & decaffeinated)
- coffee & caffeine may reduce risk of Parkinson's disease[20]
- higher coffee consumption is associated with slower cognitive decline & less cerebral Abeta-amyloid accumulation[42]
- reduced risk for multiple sclerosis (RR=0.7)[23]
- caffeinated coffee may reduce risk of rosacea in women (RR=0.89)[29]
- may reduce risk of acute kidney injury[45]
- increased risk for lung cancer in smokers (RR=1.25, but not in non-smokers RR=0.85)[24]
- Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Elihu Berle ruled that Starbucks & other coffee companies in California should have to post warnings that their coffee contains acylamide, a byproduct of coffee roasting that has been linked to cancer[27]
More general terms
More specific terms
Components
References
- ↑ Prescriber's Letter 9(9):52 2002
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Journal Watch 24(4):30, 2004 Salazar-Martinez E et al, Ann Intern Med 140:1, 2004 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14706966
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 van Dam RM, Hu FB. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. JAMA. 2005 Jul 6;294(1):97-104. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15998896
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Larsson SC et al. Coffee consumption and risk of stroke in women. Stroke 2011 Mar 10 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21393590 <Internet> http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/STROKEAHA.110.603787v1
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Lucas M et al Coffee, Caffeine, and Risk of Depression Among Women Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(17):1571-1578. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21949167 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/171/17/1571
Berkowitz SA Coffee Consumption and Depression Risk Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(17):1578 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21949168 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/171/17/1578 - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Freedman ND et al Association of Coffee Drinking with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality N Engl J Med 2012; 366:1891-1904 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22591295 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1112010
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Mostofsky E et al Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Heart Failure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis Circulation, June 26, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22740040 <Internet> http://circheartfailure.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/06/26/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.967299.full.pdf+html
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 O'Keefe JH et al Effects of Habitual Coffee Consumption on Cardiometabolic Disease, Cardiovascular Health, and All-cause Mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol. July, 2013 http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1712575
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Choi Y, Chang Y, Ryu S et al Coffee consumption and coronary artery calcium in young and middle-aged asymptomatic adults. Heart. March 2, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25732752 <Internet> http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2015/02/06/heartjnl-2014-306663
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. February 2015. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Ding M et al Association of Coffee Consumption with Total and Cause- Specific Mortality in Three Large Prospective Cohorts. Circulation. Nov 16, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26572796 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/11/10/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.017341.full.pdf+html
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Schmit SL, Rennert HS, Rennert G, Gruber SB Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev April 2016 25; 634 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27196095 <Internet> http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/25/4/634
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Gan Y, Wu J, Zhang S et al Association of coffee consumption with risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Oncotarget. 2016 Apr 7. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27078843 Free Article
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Loftfield E, Freedman ND, Graubard BI et al Association of Coffee Consumption With Overall and Cause- Specific Mortality in a Large US Prospective Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2015 Dec 15;182(12):1010-22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26614599
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 MacMahon B, Yen S, Trichopoulos D, Warren K, Nardi G. Coffee and cancer of the pancreas. N Engl J Med. 1981 Mar 12;304(11):630-3. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7453739
Gullo L, Pezzilli R, Morselli-Labate AM; Italian Pancreatic Cancer Study Group. Coffee and cancer of the pancreas: an Italian multicenter study. Pancreas. 1995 Oct;11(3):223-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8577674
Nie K, Xing Z, Huang W, Wang W, Liu W. Coffee intake and risk of pancreatic cancer: an updated meta- analysis of prospective studies. Minerva Med. 2016 Apr 21. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27098495 - ↑ 16.0 16.1 Ran HQ, Wang JZ, Sun CQ. Coffee Consumption and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: An Update Meta-analysis of Cohort Studies. Pak J Med Sci. 2016 Jan-Feb;32(1):253-9.Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27022386 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Guertin KA, Freedman ND, Loftfield E et al A prospective study of coffee intake and pancreatic cancer: results from the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Br J Cancer. 2015 Sep 29;113(7):1081-5. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26402414
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Orciari Herman A, Sadoughi S, Saitz R WHO Agency: Very Hot Beverages Probably Are Carcinogenic Physician's First Watch, June 16, 2016 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) PRESS RELEASE No, 244. June 15, 2016 IARC Monographs evaluate drinking coffee, mate, and very hot beverages http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2016/pdfs/pr244_E.pdf - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Hand L Moderate Tea Drinking Tea May Slow CAC Progression, Cut CV Event Risk: MESA. Medscape. Sep 23, 2016 http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/869038
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Ross GW et al Association of coffee and caffeine intake with the risk of Parkinson disease. JAMA 283:2674, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10819950
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Gunter MJ, Murphy N, Cross AJ et al Coffee Drinking and Mortality in 10 European Countries: A Multinational Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2017. July 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28693038 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2643435/coffee-drinking-mortality-10-european-countries-multinational-cohort-study
Park SY, Freedman ND, Haiman CA et al Association of Coffee Consumption With Total and Cause- Specific Mortality Among Nonwhite Populations. Ann Intern Med. 2017. July 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28693036 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2643433/association-coffee-consumption-total-cause-specific-mortality-among-nonwhite-populations
Guallar E, Blasco-Colmenares E, Arking DE, Zhao D. Moderate Coffee Intake Can Be Part of a Healthy Diet. Ann Intern Med. 2017. July 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28693039 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2643436/moderate-coffee-intake-can-part-healthy-diet
Localio AR, Stack CB, Griswold ME. Sensitivity Analysis for Unmeasured Confounding: E-Values for Observational Studies. Ann Intern Med. 2017. July 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28693037 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2643733/sensitivity-analysis-unmeasured-confounding-e-values-observational-studies - ↑ 22.0 22.1 Crist C Mindful Coffee Consumption May Help Reduce Sugar Intake. Medscape - Aug 22, 2017. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/884584
Lenne RL, Mann T Reducing sugar use in coffee while maintaining enjoyment: A randomized controlled trial. J Health Psychol. 2017 Aug 1:1359105317723452. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28795605 <Internet> http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1359105317723452 - ↑ 23.0 23.1 Hughes S High Daily Coffee Consumption Linked to Lower MS Risk Medscape - Mar 10, 2016. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/860178?
Hedstrom AK, Mowry EM, Gianfrancesco MA et al High consumption of coffee is associated with decreased multiple sclerosis risk; results from two independent studies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016 May;87(5):454-60 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26940586 Free PMC Article <Internet> http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/early/2016/02/03/jnnp-2015-312176.full - ↑ 24.0 24.1 Xie Y, Qin J, Nan G, Huang S, Wang Z, Su Y. Coffee consumption and the risk of lung cancer: an updated meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2016 Feb;70(2):199-206. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26081490
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 Bachert A. Coffee: No Harm, No Foul If Only 4 Cups Daily. However, link seen between coffee drinking and fracture risk in women. MedPage Today. Nov 22, 2017
Poole R, Kennedy OJ, Roderick P et al Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta- analyses of multiple health outcomes. BMJ 2017. Nov 22 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29167102 Free Article <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/359/bmj.j5024
No authors listed Coffee gets a clean bill of health. BMJ 2017; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29167168 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/359/bmj.j5356 - ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Cornelis MC, Erlund I, Michelotti GA et al Metabolomic response to coffee consumption: application to a three-stage clinical trial. J Intern Med. 2018 Mar 15. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29381822
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Hsu T Coffee Drinkers Need Cancer Warning, Judge Rules, Giving Sellers the Jitters. New York Times. March 30, 2018 https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/30/business/coffee-cancer-warning.html
CBS News. March 30, 2018 Starbucks, others must carry cancer warning in California, judge rules. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/starbucks-cancer-warning-judge-rules-on-coffee-carcinogen-acrylamide/ - ↑ 28.0 28.1 Loftfield E, Cornelis MC, Caporaso N et al. Association of coffee drinking with mortality by genetic variation in caffeine metabolism: Findings from the UK biobank. JAMA Intern Med 2018 Jul 2; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29971434 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2686145
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Li S, Chen ML, Drucker AM et al Association of Caffeine Intake and Caffeinated Coffee Consumption With Risk of Incident Rosacea In Women. JAMA Dermatol. Published online October 17, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30347034 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/2707780
Wehner MR, Linos E. One More Reason to Continue Drinking Coffee. JAMA Dermatol. Published online October 17, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30347020 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/2707778 - ↑ Rothaus C Coffee, Caffeine, and Health NEJM Resident 360. July 22, 2020 https://resident360.nejm.org/clinical-pearls/coffee-caffeine-and-health
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Mackintosh C, Yuan C, Ou FS et al Association of Coffee Intake With Survival in Patients With Advanced or Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. JAMA Oncol. Published online September 17, 2020. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32940631 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/fullarticle/2770262
Loftfield E, Gunter MJ, Sinha R Coffee and Colorectal CancerIs Improved Survival a "Perk" of Coffee Drinking? JAMA Oncol. Published online September 17, 2020. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32940627 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/fullarticle/2770257 - ↑ 32.0 32.1 Yasgur BS. Regular Coffee Drinking Tied to Functional Brain Changes. Medscape - Apr 26, 2021. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/949983
- ↑ Syrek R Trending Clinical Topic: Coffee. Medscape - May 14, 2021. https://reference.medscape.com/viewarticle/950562
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Watson J More Than Just a Hill of Beans: The Health Effects of Coffee. Medscape - Jul 12, 2021. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/954638
Nieber K The Impact of Coffee on Health Planta Med. 2017 Nov;83(16):1256-1263 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28675917 - ↑ Tamakoshi A, Lin Y, Kawado M et al Effect of coffee consumption on all-cause and total cancer mortality: findings from the JACC study. Eur J Epidemiol. 2011 Apr;26(4):285-93 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21298466
- ↑ van Dam RM, Hu FB, Willett WC. Coffee, Caffeine, and Health. N Engl J Med. 2020 Jul 23;383(4):369-378. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32706535 Review.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Kim EJ, Hoffmann TJ, Nah G et al Coffee Consumption and Incident Tachyarrhythmias. Reported Behavior, Mendelian Randomization, and Their Interactions. JAMA Intern Med. Published online July 19, 2021. July 19 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34279564 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2782015
Goldberger ZD, Hayward RA Another Cup of Coffee Without an Arrhythmia, Please. JAMA Intern Med. Published online July 19, 202 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34279552 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2782021 - ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Andreson P Coffee and the Brain: 'Concerning' New Data. Medscape - Jul 26, 2021 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/955378
Pham K, Mulugeta A, Zhou A et al High coffee consumption, brain volume and risk of dementia and stroke. Nutritional Neuroscience 2021. Jun 21 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34165394 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1028415X.2021.1945858 - ↑ 39.0 39.1 Kirkner M Coffee Tied to Lower Heart Failure Risk. Medscape - Feb 10, 2021. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/945604
Stevens LM, Linstead E, Hall JL, Kao DP Association Between Coffee Intake and Incident Heart Failure Risk. A Machine Learning Analysis of the FHS, the ARIC Study, and the CHS. Circulation: Heart Failure. 2021 Feb 9 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33557575 PMCID: PMC8081115 (available on 2022-02-09) https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.119.006799 - ↑ 40.0 40.1 Busko M Low-to-Moderate Coffee Intake in Midlife Tied to Heart Benefits Medscape. August 28, 2021 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/957464
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Phend C Coffee Causes This One Arrhythmia, Trial Shows. Overall mixed results in the CRAVE randomized trial. MedPage Today November 14, 2021 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/aha/95644
Wendling P CRAVE: No Spike in Atrial Arrhythmias Among Coffee Drinkers. Medscape. November 14, 2021 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/962909 - ↑ 42.0 42.1 Gardener SL, Rainey-Smith1 SR, Villemagne VL et al Higher Coffee Consumption Is Associated With Slower Cognitive Decline and Less Cerebral Abeta-Amyloid Accumulation Over 126 Months: Data From the Australian Imaging, Biomarkers, and Lifestyle Study. Front. Aging Neurosci., 19 November 2021 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2021.744872/full
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Lyles A Espresso Coffee Associated With Increased Total Cholesterol. Medscape. May 11, 2022 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/973819
Svatun AL, Lochen ML, Thelle DS, Wilsgaard T. Association between espresso coffee and serum total cholesterol: the Tromso Study 2015-2016 OpenHeart 2022 9(1):e001946 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35537850 PMCID: PMC8995942 Free PMC article https://openheart.bmj.com/content/9/1/e001946 - ↑ 44.0 44.1 Pass W Coffee Drinkers - Even Those With a Sweet Tooth - Live Longer. Medscape. May 31, 2022 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/974816
Liu D, Li ZH, Shen D Association of Sugar-Sweetened, Artificially Sweetened, and Unsweetened Coffee Consumption With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality. A Large Prospective Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2022 . May 31 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35635846 https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M21-2977
Wee CC. The potential health benefit of coffee: Does a spoonful of sugar make it all go away? Ann Intern Med 2022 May 31; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35635845 https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M22-1465 - ↑ 45.0 45.1 Tommerdahl KL, Hu EA, Selvin E et al Coffee Consumption May Mitigate the Risk for Acute Kidney Injury: Results From the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. KIRERORTS. Kidney International Reports. May 5, 2022 https://www.kireports.org/article/S2468-0249(22)01369-9/fulltext
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Mahdavi S, Palatini P, El-Sohem A. CYP1A2 Genetic Variation, Coffee Intake, and Kidney Dysfunction JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(1):e2247868 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36701157 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2800839
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Marcus GM et al. Acute effects of coffee consumption on health among ambulatory adults. N Engl J Med 2023 Mar 23; 388:1092. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36947466 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2204737
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Pico-Perez et al Coffee consumption decreases the connectivity of the posterior Default Mode Network (DMN) at rest. Bront. Behav. Neurosci., 28 June 2023 Sec. Learning and Memory. Volume 17 - 2023