HIV1 infection; human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection
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Etiology
Epidemiology
- predominant HIV1 strain in US & Europe is group M subtype B
- HIV1 group M subtype B originated in central Africa & spread Haiti in about 1966 (1962-1970)[20]
- spread to the US (& elsewhere around the world) emerged after a single migration of HIV1 out of Haiti in about 1969 (1966-1972)[20]
- 1.2 million people in the US infected with HIV1 (2009-2014)[3][73]
- 47,500 new cases in 2010 in the US (CDC)
- 13% of the 1.2 million people with HIV1 infection in the U.S. have undiagnosed infection[73]
- 30-40% of patients with known HIV1 infection are not getting regular care[74]
- prevalence of HIV1 infection ranges from 0.1% (Iowa) to nearly 4% (District of Columbia)[73]
- majority of cases in US occur in men who have sex with men; heterosexual transmission is 2nd most common cause[3]
- patients with known HIV1 infection, but not virally suppressed account for 61% of transmissions; undiagnosed patients account for 30% of transmissions; virally suppressed patients account for 2.5% of transmissions[69]
- 26% of new HIV infections in the U.S. are in people 13-24 years of age[41]
- male-to-male sexual contact accounts for ~75% of new HIV infections among youth
- ~60% of new HIV infections among youth are in African Americans.
- 13% of high school students have been tested for HIV
- 35% of people 18-24 years of age have been tested for HIV
- 10% of new diagnoses in patients >= 50 years of age
- 48% of older infected adults diagnosed when CD4 count < 200 cells/uL
- men who have sex with men account for 40% of diagnosed older adults
- 62% of foreign-born HIV persons in U.S. with HIV1 infection acquired it in the U.S.[93]
- diagnosis is often delayed[31]
- 60% with a previous negative test
- 42% within a year before of diagnosis
- 21% from 1-2 years before
- 37% >2 years before
- 60% with a previous negative test
- overall reduction in new cases of HIV1 2001-2012[51][62]
- increase in HIV1 cases in young men who have sex with men[62]
- a new strain of HIV-1 (CRF19-cpx) progresses to AIDS within 3 years identified in Cuba[68]
- surveillance case definition for HIV infection[60]
- HIV1 infection can be spread by
- contact with infected blood or other body fluids
- sexual contact, blood transfusion, shared needles, occupational exposure
- perinatal transmission[3]
- contact with infected blood or other body fluids
- reducing HIV1 RNA viral load to undetectable eliminates risk of transmission during sex[81]
- increasing resistance to HIV1 antiretroviral agents[89]
- HIV infections in the U.S. fell by 15% from 2008 to 2015[97]
- HIV1 infections due to heterosexual contact & injection drug use fell, but remained stable among men who have sex with men
- Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, South Carolina & with highest rates of new HIV1 infection (2018)[102]
Pathology
- RNA virus encoding a reverse transcriptase, with subsequent insertion of nascent DNA into cellular genome, thus causing latent & persistent infection
- HIV binds to CD4 in the presence of a coreceptor - either CCR5 or CXCR4, on the cell surface of T-helper lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages & other cells
- with disease progression, CD4+ lymphocytes decline; below 200 cells/mm3, there is an increased risk of opportunistic infections
- early symptomatic HIV infection generally occurs when the CD4 count begins to decline & the CD4/CD8 ratio inverts
- disease generally progresses over a period of 10-14 years
- ongoing viral replication throughout the entire course of infection, including asymptomatic periods
- 100 million to 10 billion new virions produced daily
- > 99% of virions produced from acutely infected CD4+ cells
- 1/2 life of virus in plasma is estimated to be about 1.2 days
- initially, several hundred million CD4 cells are produced daily in response to rapid viral replication
- acutely infected individuals are viremic & contagious[14]
- eventually, the immune system fatigues with increased viremia, decreased CD4 production, & opportunistic infection
- low-lvel virus replication within chronically infected monocytes, macrophages & dendritic cells
- B-cell dysfunction occurs early in HIV infection
- defective neutrophil chemotaxis, phagocytosis & bactericidal activity
- preserved monocytic antimicrobial function[95]
- also see resistance to HIV1
Clinical manifestations
- primary infection
- often asymptomatic
- acute retroviral syndrome
- presentation may be atypical
- gastrointestinal & CNS manifestations most common[77]
- opportunistic infections (CMV) account for 24% of atypical presentations (7% overall)[77]
- cutaneous manifestations of early disease
- oral mucosal lesions
- aphthous ulcers
- oral hairy leukoplakia
- gigivitis, periodontitis
- signs/symptoms may increase in severity with time[21]
- peripheral neuropathy
- nephropathy
- persistently enlarged glands may be 1st sign of AIDS
Laboratory
- all adolescents and adults should be tested for HIV at least once[61]
- HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay to detect both HIV1 p24 antigen in serum & HIV1 + HIV2 Ab in serum FDA-approved 6/21/10
- HIV1 serology (older assay)
- specific HIV-1 antibodies* are not detectable until 4-12 weeks after initial infection
- HIV1 antibody in serum
- screening with HIV1 EIA/ELISA* for antibody to HIV-1 (99% sensitivity & specificity)
- Oraquick Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test available 2003
- confirmatory HIV1 western blot* for antibodies to virus- specific proteins: a positive HIV1 western blot consists of the presence of bands for:
- seronegative HIV1 infections are rare, but potentially lethal[3]
- repeat HIV1 testing if no documentation[3]
- HIV1 antigen in serum/CSF
- HIV1 p24 antigen in serum
- p24 antigen testing# is generally positive just after onset of symptoms of seroconversion, before development of antibodies
- quantitative HIV-1 RNA levels#
- reverse-trancriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)
- branched chain DNA (bDNA) assay
- nucleic acid sequence-based assay (NASBA)
- high levels of HIV-1 RNA (500,000- 21 million copies/mL) are detected in plasma before the detection of specific anti-HIV-1 antibodies
- the high level of viremia decreases 100-10,000 fold coincident with the development of the specific anti-HIV-1 humoral immune response - it is thought that cytotoxic T-cells are responsible for this decline in HIV1 viral load
- post-seroconversion viral load (HIV RNA determined by PCR) is the best predictor of long-term prognosis
- post-seroconversion HIV RNA > 30,000 copies/mL are associated with a high risk of disease progression
- identification of acute HIV infection with quantitative HIV-1 RNA levels combined with aggressive early treatment may
- reduce severity of chronic infection
- prevent transmission to sexual contacts[14]
- HIV1 viral load
- independent predictor of disease progression[3]
- poorly predicts decline in CD4 count[17]
- responds to initiating or changing therapy within 4-8 weeks (>= 1 log decrease in HIV RNA)
- a decrease in HIV RNA of > 1 log is associated with treatment benefit
- an undetectable viral load reduces HIV1 transmission via sexual intercourse to zero or close to zero[3]
- frequent monitoring of HIV-1 RNA levels for the 1st year to detect treatment failure[26]
- routine every 3-4 months & monthly after change in therapy
- complete blood count (CBC) with differential
- lymphopenia may develop during acute seroconversion
- atypical lymphocytosis may follow resolution of symptoms associated with seroconversion
- anemia
- thrombocytopenia[3]
- serum chemistries (baseline, every 6-12 months or change in ART)
- urinalysis[3]
- HIV nephropathy is generally nephrotic syndrome due to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
- other serology
- serologic testing for syphilis
- testing for other STDs
- Toxoplasma gondii IgG
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV) IgG (high risk)
- hepatitis A serology, hepatitis B serology & hepatitis C serology
- screen for hepatitis C infection yearly[72]
- varicella virus serology (high risk)[3]
- serologic testing for syphilis
- CD4 count
- best predictor of risk of disease progression
- average rate of decline is 80-90/uL/year
- viral load does NOT predict decline[17]
- routine every 3-4 months[3]
- results of routine CD4 counts constribute nothing to medical decision making[44]
- CD4 count of < 200 cells/uL establishes diagnosis of AIDS[3]
- rarely used in treatment decisions for patients with with virologic suppression on antiretroviral therapy[64]
- many older patients with suppressed viral loads continue to have CD4 counts ~ 200/mm3 after years of antiretroviral therapy[35]
- in patients with undectable HIV1 viral load & normal CD4 count, further monitoring of T-cell subsets is not recommended[3]
- tuberculin skin testing or Quantiferon TB test annually[3] unless PPD+ or with active tuberculosis
- Papanicolaou (Pap) smear for women
- glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) in erythrocytes (baseline)
- HIV1 genotyping
- genotypic HIV1 resistance testing
- all HIV1 patients at baseline & treatment failure[3][26]
- done while patient is receiving no therapy or ineffective therapy[3]
- same day HIV testing & antiretroviral therapy initiation beneficial in newly diagnosed patients with HIV1 infection[92]
- see ARUP consult[36]
* informed consent for testing must be obtained & arrangements should be made for a follow-up visit to discuss results; results of HIV testing should not be given over the phone
# HIV-1 RNA & p24 antigen testing preferred for diagnosis[3]
* also see HIV laboratory testing
Radiology
- Dexa scan screening for osteoporosis men > 50 years
- HAART containing tenofovir disoproxil fumarate associated with greater decline in bone mineral density than other regimens[114]
Complications
- immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome occurs after initiation of antiretroviral therapy due to inflammatory response to pre-existing underlying infection
- see complications in patients with HIV disease
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with cardiac arrest
- disease interaction(s) HIV1 infections & smoking
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C & non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
- disease interaction(s) of asthma with HIV1 infection
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with chronic renal failure
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with kidney disease
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 with COVID-19
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 with tuberculosis
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 with cryptococcal meningitis
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with psoriatic arthritis
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with psoriasis
Management
- antiretroviral therapy
- indications
- all HIV1-infected patients[36][37][61][76]
- treatment beginning at the time of diagnosis reduces risk of serious illness or death (RR < 0.5)[71][98]
- initiation of antiretroviral therapy within 1 year improves likelihood of normal CD4 counts[66]
- if viral load is low & CD4 count is high & patient does not agree to treatment, it is safe to defer treatment pending further discussion[3]
- older recommendations
- start antiretroviral therapy if symptomatic, regardless of CD4 cell count[26]
- start antiretroviral therapy if pregnant, regardless of CD4 cell count[3]
- asymptomatic patients should start at CD4 counts of <= 500/mm3 [3, 26,30]
- CD4 count < 200/mm3[11] (200-350/mm3[6], 350/mm3[21][27])
- post-seroconversion HIV RNA load of > 5000 copies/mL (10,000-100,000 copies/mL[6])
- rapid rate of CD4 count decline, HIV viral load of > 100,000 copies/mL, hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection, HIV-associated neuropathy or cardiovascular risk factors even if CD4 count is > 350/mm3[22]
- early treatment of asymptomatic patients (48 weeks of therapy) associated with higher CD4 counts at 4 years[42]
- all HIV1-infected patients[36][37][61][76]
- initial therapy should consist of a 3-drug combination from 2 different classes individualized according to the results of HIV1 resistance testing
- 2 drug regimens also available[112]
- preferred initial regimen is an integrase inhibitor + 2 nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)[82]
- preferred NRTIs: tenofovir* +lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC)[110]
- regimens that don't require boosting with ritonavir or cobicistat[99]
- regimens with a high barrier to resistance
- 2nd-generation integrase inhibitors dolutegravir & bictegravir offer the most advantages for HIV1 treatment[99]
- dolutegravir + lamivudine (Dovato) 1st line if HIV1 RNA < 500,000/mL & no hepatitis B coinfection[112]
- multiple agents are used to prevent emergence of viral resistance
- most regimens at least 3 agents
- 2 agent regimens approved if no coinfection with hepatitis B[112]
- QUAD HIV therapy (4 drugs, once a day) non-inferior to standard of care regimens
- 3 one pill once a day regimens[48]
- efavirenz/FTC/tenofovir* (Atripla)
- efavirenz-containing regimens formerly recommended, now alternative[70]
- elvitegravir/cobicistat/FTC/tenofovir* (Stribild)
- 3 one pill once a day regimens[48]
- recommended regimens[3][70]
- tenofovir*/lamivudine (3TC) plus dolutegravir (DTG)[105]
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus dolutegravir (DTG)
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC)/cobicistat plus elvitegravir (EVG/c)
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus raltegravir (RAL)
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus bictegravir (Biktarvy)
- abacavir (ABC)/lamivudine (3TC)/dolutegravir (DTG)
- alternative regimens[70]
- abacavir (ABC)/lamivudine (3TC) & atazanavir (ATV/r)
- abacavir (ABC)/lamivudine (3TC) & efavirenz (EFV)
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus atazanavir (ATV/r)
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus darunavir (DRV/r)
- pregnancy or HIV1/tuberculosis coinfection
- tenofovir*/lamivudine (3TC) plus dolutegravir (DTG)[105][112]
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus dolutegravir (DTG)[112]
- tenofovir*/emtricitabine (FTC) plus raltegravir (RAL)[112]
- tenofovir (TDF))/lamivudine (3TC) & efavirenz 400 or 600 mg (EFV)[112]
- newer FDA approvals
- dolutegravir/rilpivirine (Juluca) PO QD, FDA-approved Nov 2017[94]
- dolutegravir/lamivudine (Dovato) PO QD, FDA-approved April 2019
- cabotegravir/rilpivirine (Cabenuva) injection 2 in injection IM every 4 weeks
- ibalizumab (Trogarzo) FDA-approved March 2018 for multidrug-resistant HIV1 infection
- long-acting injectables
- cabotegravir/rilpivirine (Cabenuva) IM every 4 or 8 weeks[90][108]
- if no coinfection with hepatitis B[112]
- every 4 weeks non inferior to daily antiretroviral[107]
- cabotegravir/rilpivirine (Cabenuva) IM every 4 or 8 weeks[90][108]
- see AIDS for antiretroviral regimens
- goal of therapy is to achieve HIV1 RNA levels below limits of detectability, formerly < 500-5000 copies/mL
- effective treatment diminishes emergence of resistance (the most important principle)[3]
- HIV1 RNA levels become undetectable within a few months of effective antiretroviral therapy
- effective antiretroviral therapy reduces perinatal transmission in pregnant women
- goal of HIV1 viral load suppression more commonly achieved in older patients vs younger patients[35]
- treatment diminishes CSF viral load[19]
- early antiretroviral treatment protects sex partners[32][100]
- no risk of HIV1 transmission in virally-suppressed patients with or without condom during heterosexual or homosexual intercourse[81][100]
- early combination antiretroviral therapy (for ~ 3 years) may enable some patients to maintain a very low or undetectable HIV1 viral load years after stopping antiretroviral therapy[47]
- early antiretroviral therapy in infant may lead to antiretroviral-free virologic control[53]
- same day antiretroviral therapy initiation beneficial in newly diagnosed patients with HIV1 infection[92]
- antiretroviral therapy as effective in the elderly as in younger patients[35]
- high-dose multivitamin in conjunction with HAART not helpful, perhaps harmful[39]
- immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome may occur as the patient regains immune function
- indications
- prophylactic antiretroviral therapy
- exposure to potentially infectious tissue or body fluids
- see post-exposure HIV prophylaxis
- see pre-exposure HIV prophylaxis
- treatment failure
- re-emergence of detectable HIV1 viral load
- HIV1 resistance testing while continuing current antiretroviral therapy[3][50]
- agents active in the setting of drug resistance:
- 30% of HIV-infected Americans achieve viral suppression
- older patients taking > 15 medications (polypharmacy) have lower chance of viral suppression[111]
- medication compliance may be an issue
- suppression of HIV1 viral load in plasma is common at adherence levels of >70%[38]
- new HIV1 replication may occur within cells, despite suppression of HIV1 viral load in plasma[38]
- goal is > 95% compliance[5]
- older patients are more likely to be compliant with antiretroviral therapy than younger patients[35]
- direct observation benefits are not sustained past the period of direct observation[34]
- interruption of antiretroviral therapy is associated with increase in cardiovascular events including death & infectious complications[3]
- prophylaxis for opportunistic infections
- Pneumocystis jirovecii
- CD4 count < 200 cell/uL
- Bactrim DS QD or 3X/week
- toxoplasmosis
- CD4 count < 100 cell/uL & positive serum Toxoplasma IgG
- Bactrim DS QD
- Mycobacterium avium
- CD4 count < 50 cell/uL
- azithromycin 1200 mg/week no longer recommended if taking HART[3]
- latent tuberculosis
- tuberculin skin test > 5 mm induration or positive Quantiferon TB test
- INH 300 mg/day for 9 months (after chest X-ray rules out active tuberculosis)
- discontinue prophylaxis (excepting latent tuberculosis) when CD4 count > 200/uL & HIV1 viral load undetectable for > 3 months[3]
- Pneumocystis jirovecii
- health maintenance including routine immunizations & cancer screening for the most part as per uninfected persons
- immunizations (unless immune or CD4 < 200 mm3)
- pneumococcal vaccination (PCV15 & PPSV23 in this order)
- hepatitis B vaccine
- measles-mumps-rubella vaccine (MMR)
- recombinant Herpes zoster vaccine (Shingrix)
- meningococcal vaccine (MenACWY/Menveo,Menomune/Menactra: all HIV1 patients)
- other vaccinations as indicated for the general public
- aggressive cardiovascular risk reduction for patients on antiretroviral therapy including HIV1 protease inhibitor[3]
- pravastatin & pitavastatin are the least likely statins to interfere with antiretroviral therapy[104]
- avoid simvastatin & lovastatin[14]
- atorvastatin or rosuvastatin mya be considered[104]
- even patients at low to moderate cardiovascular risk benefit from statin[113]
- tuberculin skin testing annually unless PPD+ or with active tuberculosis (see AIDS)
- exclude active infection with Mycobacterium avium[3]
- zoledronic acid 5 mg IV with initiation of anti-retroviral therapy reduces bone loss at 24 weeks (assessed by plasma C-terminal telopeptide of collagen)[83]
- immunizations (unless immune or CD4 < 200 mm3)
- follow-up every 6 months in early HIV infection
- experimental therapies
- interleukin-2 (IL-2) may be of some benefit in increasing CD4 counts & diminishing viral loads in HIV positive patients
- HIV vaccine stimulating cytotoxic lymphocyte responsiveness to the HIV GAG protein show promise (results in monkeys)[7]
- transfection with short interfering double-stranded RNA (siRNA) shows promise[8]
- CMV/HIV1IV virus vaccine may be effective on infected mucosal cells early in the course of HIV1 infection[33]
- broadly neutralizing antibodies reduce HIV viral load[40][75]
- gene therapy using reinfused cells genetically modified ex-vivo (in vitro)[58]
- a zinc-finger nuclease renders CCR5 gene permanently dysfunctional in CD4 cells collected by leukopheresis
- the reinfused cells were found in the endovascular space as well as trafficking into tissues
- bone marrow transplantation / allogeneic stem cell transplantation not curative[57][62]
- case reporting required in California (local health department)[9]
- patient education
- prognosis:
- non-HIV related deaths becoming more common[16]
- although HIV1 has been transformed from a fatal disease to a chronic disease, life expectancy is diminished for even the healthiest HIV patients (72 years most favorable estimate)[23]
- seropositive HIV1 patients able to maintain an HIV RNA viral load of < 50 copies/mL without antiretroviral therapy are called 'elite controllers'
- excess mortality in untreated HIV even with CD4 counts of > 350/uL[28]
- older patients diagnosed with HIV1 infection 3-fold more likely to die within 1 year than younger patients[35]
* tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is associated with risk for renal tubular nephrotoxicity & reduced bone mineral density
* tenofovir alafenamide should be used preferentially in patients at risk for kidney disease or osteoporosis[3]
Comparative biology
- vectored immunoprophylaxis protects humanized mice from HIV1[59]
Notes
- treatment of HIV-infected patients in serodiscordant couples is cost-effective[52]
- risk for HIV transmission from an infected man not virally suppressed to an uninfected woman is 8 per 10,000 episodes of unprotected vaginal sex[91]
- no instances of HIV transmission during unprotected sex in serodiscordant couples in which infected partner was virologically suppressed[91]
- HIV1 RNA in semen of men without detectable HIV1 RNA in blood
- unknown whether this poses a risk for transmission[91]
- financial incentives (< $300/year) improves viral suppression rates[88]
- HIV remission after receiving a stem cell transplant for lymphoma from a donor with a mutation in HIV coreceptor CCR5[102]
- current threshold for health care providers allowed to participate in higher-risk healthcare-associated procedures is < 200 copies/mL for HIV1 RNA[109]
More general terms
More specific terms
Additional terms
- acute retroviral syndrome; acute HIV1 infection
- antiretroviral therapy (ART)
- complications in patients with HIV1 infection
- HIV infection during pregnancy
- HIV laboratory testing
- HIV treatment failure
- HIV1/hepatitis C-coinfection
- HIV1/malaria coinfection
- HIV1/tuberculosis coinfection
- hospice guidelines for determining prognosis, HIV
- human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)
- human immunodeficiency virus-2 (HIV-2)
- infectivity of HIV
- oral lesions of HIV & AIDS
- outpatient management of HIV related pneumonia
- perinatal transmission of HIV
- prevention of HIV
- resistance & susceptibility to HIV1
- safe sex (prevention of HIV1 & other STDs)
- screening for HIV1
- surgery in HIV patients
References
- ↑ Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 720-26
- ↑ Mayo Internal Medicine Board Review, 1998-99, Prakash UBS (ed) Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1998, pg 180
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ Journal Watch 20(16):128, 2000 Davey RT et al Immunologic and virologic effects of subcutaneous interleukin 2 in combination with antiretroviral therapy: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 284:183, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10889591
Blankson J & Siliciano RF Interleukin 2 treatment for HIV infection. JAMA 284:236, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10889599 - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Prescriber's Letter 8(1):3 2001 (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Journal Watch 22(1):1, 2002 Phillips AN et al HIV viral load response to antiretroviral therapy according to the baseline CD4 cell count and viral load. JAMA 286:2560, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11722270
Hogg RS et al Rates of disease progression by baseline CD4 cell count and viral load after initiating triple-drug therapy. JAMA 286:2568, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11722271
Pomerantz RJ. Initiating antiretroviral therapy during HIV infection: confusion and clarity. JAMA 286:2597, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11722276 - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Journal Watch 22(5):42, 2002 Shiver JW et al Replication-incompetent adenoviral vaccine vector elicits effective anti-immunodeficiency-virus immunity. Nature 415:331, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11797011
Barouch DH et al Eventual AIDS vaccine failure in a rhesus monkey by viral escape from cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Nature 415:335, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11797012
Lifson JD & Martin MA One step forwards, one step back. Nature 415:272, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11796990
Picker LJ and Deeks SG. HIV: Antibodies advance the search for a cure. Nature 2013 Oct 30 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24172894 - ↑ 8.0 8.1 Journal Watch 22(16):128, 2002 Novina CD et al siRNA-directed inhibition of HIV-1 infection. Nat Med 8:681, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042777
Pomerantz RJ RNA interference meets HIV-1: will silence be golden? Nat Med 8:659, 2002 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12091895 - ↑ 9.0 9.1 <Internet> http://www.dhs.ca.gov.aids Action Report, Medical Board of California, 85:9 (April) 2003
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Young J Stable partnership and progression to AIDS or death in HIV infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: Swiss HIV cohort study. BMJ 328:15,2004 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14703538 <Internet> http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7430/15
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Journal Watch 24(17):136, 2004 Yeni PG, Hammer SM, Hirsch MS, Saag MS, Schechter M, Carpenter CC, Fischl MA, Gatell JM, Gazzard BG, Jacobsen DM, Katzenstein DA, Montaner JS, Richman DD, Schooley RT, Thompson MA, Vella S, Volberding PA. Treatment for adult HIV infection: 2004 recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2004 Jul 14;292(2):251-65. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15249575
- ↑ Smith DK, Grohskopf LA, Black RJ, Auerbach JD, Veronese F, Struble KA, Cheever L, Johnson M, Paxton LA, Onorato IM, Greenberg AE. Treating Opportunistic Infections Among HIV-Exposed and Infected Children: Recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005 Jan 21;54(RR-2):1-112. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15660015
- ↑ Smith DK, Grohskopf LA, Black RJ, Auerbach JD, Veronese F, Struble KA, Cheever L, Johnson M, Paxton LA, Onorato IM, Greenberg AE Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection-Drug Use, or Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV in the United States Recommendations from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005 Jan 21;54(RR02):1-20. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5402a1.htm
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Journal Watch 25(11):88, 2005 Pilcher CD, Fiscus SA, Nguyen TQ, Foust E, Wolf L, Williams D, Ashby R, O'Dowd JO, McPherson JT, Stalzer B, Hightow L, Miller WC, Eron JJ Jr, Cohen MS, Leone PA. Detection of acute infections during HIV testing in North Carolina. N Engl J Med. 2005 May 5;352(18):1873-83. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15872202
- ↑ Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, Janssen RS, Taylor AW, Lyss SB, Clark JE; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Sep 22;55(RR-14):1-17; quiz CE1-4. Corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Dec 2011 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16988643
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Sackoff JE et al, Causes of death among persons with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: New York City Ann Intern Med 2006, 145:397 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16983127
Aberg JA The changing face of HIV care: Common things really are common. Ann Intern Med 2006, 145:463 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16983135 - ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Rodriguez B et al, Predictive value of plasma HIV RNA level on rate of CD4 T-cell decline in untreated HIV infection. JAMA 2006, 296:1498 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17003398
- ↑ Bartlett JA et al, An updated systematic overview of triple combination therapy in antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected adults. AIDS 2006, 20:2051 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17053351
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Spudich S et al, Treatment benefit on cerbrospinal fluid HIV-1 levels in the settings of systmeic virological suppression and failure. J Infect Dis 2006, 194:1686 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17109340
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Gilbert MTP et al, The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007, 104:18566 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17978186
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Stevens LM et al, HIV Infection: The Basics, JAMA Patient Page JAMA 2008, 300(5):614
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Hammer SM et al; International AIDS Society-USA. Antiretroviral treatment of adult HIV infection: 2008 recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA panel. JAMA. 2008 Aug 6;300(5):555-70. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18677028
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet. 2008 Jul 26;372(9635):293-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18657708
- ↑ Aberg JA et al Primary Care Guidelines for the Management of Persons Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: 2009 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Infectious Diseases 2009;49:651-681 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640227 <Internet> http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/605292?cookieSet=1
- ↑ Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents World Health Organization Nov. 2009 http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/rapid_advice_art.pdf corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Feb 2016
Use of antiretroviral drugs for treating pregnant women and preventing HIV Infection in infants World Health Organization Nov. 2009 http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/mtct/rapid_advice_mtct.pdf corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Feb 2016
HIV and infant feeding: Revised Principles and Recommendations World Health Organization Nov. 2009 http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/documents/hiv_if_principles_recommendations_112009.pdf - ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Thompson MA et al Antiretroviral Treatment of Adult HIV Infection 2010 Recommendations of the International AIDS Society- USA Panel JAMA. 2010;304(3):321-333 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20639566 <Internet> http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/304/3/321
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Smith RD et al. HIV transmission and high rates of late diagnoses among adults aged 50 years and over. AIDS 2010 Aug 24; 24:2109. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20616697
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Study Group on Death Rates at High CD4 Count in Antiretroviral Naive Patients. Death rates in HIV-positive antiretroviral-naive patients with CD4 count greater than 350 cells per uL in Europe and North America: A pooled cohort observational study. Lancet 2010 Jul 31; 376:340 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20638118
- ↑ Grant RM et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med 2010 Nov 23; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21091279 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1011205
Michael NL. Oral preexposure prophylaxis for HIV - Another arrow in the quiver? N Engl J Med 2010 Nov 23; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21091280 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1012929
Prescriber's Letter 18(1): 2011 Truvada for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis of HIV Infection Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=270106&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidance: Preexposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of HIV Infection in Men Who Have Sex with Men Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) January 28, 2011 / 60(03);65-68 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21270743 <Internet> http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6003a1.htm - ↑ The HIV-CAUSAL Collaboration When to Initiate Combined Antiretroviral Therapy to Reduce Mortality and AIDS-Defining Illness in HIV-Infected Persons in Developed Countries: An Observational Study Ann Intern Med April 19, 2011, 154:509-515 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21502648 <Internet> http://www.annals.org/content/154/8/509.abstract
Baker JV and Henry K If We Can't Get What We Want, Can We Get What We Need? Optimizing Use of Antiretroviral Therapy in the Current Era Ann Intern Med April 19, 2011, 154:563-565; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21502654 - ↑ 31.0 31.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Previous HIV Testing Among Adults and Adolescents Newly Diagnosed with HIV Infection - National HIV Surveillance System, 18 Jurisdictions, United States, 2006-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012 Jun 22;61:441-5. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22717512
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 NIH News Release, May 12, 2011 Treating HIV-infected People with Antiretrovirals Protects Partners from Infection
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Hansen SG et al. Profound early control of highly pathogenic SIV by an effector memory T-cell vaccine. Nature 2011 May 26; 473:523. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21562493
Johnson RP. Persistence pays off. Nature 2011 May 26; 473:456. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21614068 - ↑ 34.0 34.1 Berg KM et al. Lack of sustained improvement in adherence or viral load following a directly observed antiretroviral therapy intervention. Clin Infect Dis 2011 Nov 1; 53:936 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21890753
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 7th edition Parada JT et al (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2010
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2016 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 ARUP Consult: Human Immunodeficiency Virus - HIV The Physician's Guide to Laboratory Test Selection & Interpretation https://www.arupconsult.com/content/human-immunodeficiency-virus
Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Adults and Adolescents Testing Algorithm https://arupconsult.com/algorithm/human-immunodeficiency-virus-adults-testing-algorithm - ↑ 37.0 37.1 Thompson MA et al. Antiretroviral treatment of adult HIV infection: 2012 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society - USA panel. JAMA 2012 Jul 25 ; 308:387. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22820792 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1221704
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Pasternak AO et al. Modest nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy promotes residual HIV-1 replication in the absence of virological rebound in plasma. J Infect Dis 2012 Sep 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22927449 <Internet> http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/09/10/infdis.jis502
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Isanaka S et al Effect of High-Dose vs Standard-Dose Multivitamin Supplementation at the Initiation of HAART on HIV Disease Progression and Mortality in Tanzania A Randomized Controlled Trial JAMA. 2012;308(15):1535-1544. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23073950 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1383231
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 Klein F et al. HIV therapy by a combination of broadly neutralizing antibodies in humanized mice. Nature 2012 Oct 24; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23103874
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vital Signs: HIV Infection, Testing, and Risk Behaviors Among Youths - United States MMWR November 27, 2012 / 61(Early Release);1-6 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm61e1127a1.htm
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 The SPARTAC Trial Investigators Short-Course Antiretroviral Therapy in Primary HIV Infection N Engl J Med 2013; 368:207-217January 17, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23323897 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110039
Le T et al Enhanced CD4+ T-Cell Recovery with Earlier HIV-1 Antiretroviral Therapy. N Engl J Med 2013; 368:218-230January 17, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23323898 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110187
Walker BD and Hirsch MS Antiretroviral Therapy in Early HIV Infection N Engl J Med 2013; 368:279-281January 17, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23323905 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1213734 - ↑ 43.0 43.1 Helleberg M et al. Mortality attributable to smoking among HIV-1-infected individuals: A nationwide, population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2012 Dec 18 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23254417 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/12/15/cid.cis933
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Gale HB et al. Is frequent CD4+ T-lymphocyte count monitoring necessary for persons with counts >= 300 cells/uL and HIV-1 suppression? Clin Infect Dis. Feb 13, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23315315 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/02/13/cid.cit004
Sax PE. Can we break the habit of routine CD4 monitoring in HIV care? Clin Infect Dis. Feb 13, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23315314 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/02/13/cid.cit008 - ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
HIV/AIDS http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/
HIV Incidence http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/incidence.htm - ↑ AIDSinfo, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/
Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1- infected adults and adolescents http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/html/1/adult-and-adolescent-treatment-guidelines/0/ (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn March 2016) - ↑ 47.0 47.1 Saez-Cirion A et al Post-Treatment HIV-1 Controllers with a Long-Term Virological Remission after the Interruption of Early Initiated Antiretroviral Therapy ANRS VISCONTI Study PLoS Pathog 9(3): e1003211 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23516360 <Internet> http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1003211
Hocqueloux L, Saez-Cirion A, Rouzioux C. Immunovirologic Control 24 Months After Interruption of Antiretroviral Therapy Initiated Close to HIV Seroconversion. JAMA Intern Med. 2013 Mar 25;173(6):475-7. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23529554 - ↑ 48.0 48.1 Zolopa A et al. A randomized double-blind comparison of coformulated elvitegravir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection: Analysis of week 96 results. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013 May 1; 63:96 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23392460
- ↑ Kaplan JE, Benson C, Holmes KH et al Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2009 Apr 10;58(RR-4):1-207 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19357635
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Taylor S, Jayasuriya A, Smit E. Using HIV resistance tests in clinical practice. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009 Aug;64(2):218-22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19535382
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 UNAIDS Press Release September 23, 2013 UNAIDS reports a 52% reduction in new HIV infections among children and a combined 33% reduction among adults and children since 2001. http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/september/20130923prunga/
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 Walensky RP et al. Cost-effectiveness of HIV treatment as prevention in serodiscordant couples. N Engl J Med 2013 Oct 31; 369:1715 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24171517 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1214720
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Persaud D et al. Absence of detectable HIV-1 viremia after treatment cessation in an infant. N Engl J Med 2013 Oct 23; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24152233
- ↑ AIDS Info. Nov 8, 2013 Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections for HIV-Exposed and HIV-Infected Children http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/oi_guidelines_pediatrics.pdf (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn March 2016)
- ↑ Aberg JA et al Primary Care Guidelines for the Management of Persons Infected With HIV: 2013 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. (2013) Nov 13. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24235263 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/11/12/cid.cit665.full
- ↑ Eisman S. Pruritic papular eruption in HIV. Dermatol Clin. 2006 Oct;24(4):449-57, vi. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17010775
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Young K HIV Returns in Two Bone-Marrow Transplant Patients in Remission Physician's First Watch, Dec 9, 2013 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Tebas P et al. Gene editing of CCR5 in autologous CD4 T cells of persons infected with HIV. N Engl J Med 2014 Mar 6; 370:901. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24597865 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1300662
Kay MA and Walker BD. Engineering cellular resistance to HIV. N Engl J Med 2014 Mar 6; 370:968 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24597871 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1400593 - ↑ 59.0 59.1 Balazs AB et al. Vectored immunoprophylaxis protects humanized mice from mucosal HIV transmission. Nat Med 2014 Mar; 20:296. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24509526
Corey L and McElrath MJ. One shot forward for HIV prevention. Nat Med 2014 Mar 4; 20:241 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603794 - ↑ 60.0 60.1 Selik RM et al. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection - United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep 2014 Apr 11; 63:1 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6303.pdf
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Marrazzo JM et al HIV Prevention in Clinical Care Settings. 2014 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society - USA Panel JAMA. 2014;312(4):390-409 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25038358 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1889145
Gunthard HF et al Antiretroviral Treatment of Adult HIV Infection. 2014 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society - USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312(4):410-425 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25038359 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1889146
Mathers BM and Cooper DA Integrating HIV Prevention Into Practice. JAMA. 2014;312(4):349-350 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25038352 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1889112 - ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 Henrich TJ et al Antiretroviral-Free HIV-1 Remission and Viral Rebound After Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation: Report of 2 Cases. Ann Intern Med. Published online 22 July 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25047577d <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1889547
- ↑ Johnson AS et al. Trends in diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States, 2002-2011. JAMA 2014 Jul 23/30; 312:432. PMID: 25038362
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 Chow E et al. Routine CD4 cell count monitoring seldom contributes to clinical decision-making on antiretroviral therapy in virologically suppressed HIV-infected patients. HIV Med 2014 Sep 18 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25236189 <Internet> http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hiv.12198/abstract;jsessionid=02A2468CA66634F0CAB4B2DCA530D5FF.f01t04
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Shet A et al Effect of mobile telephone reminders on treatment outcome in HIV: evidence from a randomised controlled trial in India. BMJ. 2014 Nov 19;349:g7031 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25410005 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g5978
Kahol K Mobile phone messaging to improve health. BMJ 2014;349:g6158 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2595498 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g6158 - ↑ 66.0 66.1 Orciari Herman A, Fairchild DG Delaying Antiretroviral Therapy After HIV Infection Reduces Odds of Normalizing CD4-Cell Counts. Physician's First Watch, Nov 25, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Okulicz JF et al. Influence of the timing of antiretroviral therapy on the potential for normalization of immune status in human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected individuals. JAMA Intern Med 2014 Nov 24; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25419650 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.4010
Schacker TW et al. Defining success with antiretroviral therapy. JAMA Intern Med 2014 Nov 24; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25419970 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.4004 - ↑ 67.0 67.1 Bradley H et al Vital Signs: HIV Diagnosis, Care, and Treatment Among Persons Living with HIV - United States, 2011. MMWR. Early Release. November 25, 2014 / 63(Early Release);1-6 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm63e1125a1.htm
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 Kouri V et al CRF19-cpx is an Evolutionary fit HIV-1 Variant Strongly Associated With Rapid Progression to AIDS in Cuba. EBioMedicine. January 28, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26137563 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352396415000389
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Skarbinski J et al Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission at Each Step of the Care Continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. Published online February 23, 2015. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25706928 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130723
Giordano TP The HIV Treatment Cascade - A New Tool in HIV Prevention. JAMA Intern Med. Published online February 23, 2015. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25706538 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130718 - ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 NEJM Journal Watch. April 23, 2015 Massachusetts Medical Society (subscription needed) http://www.jwatch.org
Sax PE HIV and ID Observations. April 8, 2015 http://blogs.jwatch.org/hiv-id-observations/ - ↑ 71.0 71.1 NIH News. May 27, 2015 Starting Antiretroviral Treatment Early Improves Outcomes for HIV-Infected Individuals.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Workowski KA, Bolan GA (CDC) Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2015 Recommendations and Reports. MMWR June 5, 2015 / 64(RR3);1-137 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6403a1.htm
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 Hall IH Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR. Weekly. June 26, 2015 / 64(24);657-662 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6424a2.htm
Seth P et al Identifying New Positives and Linkage to HIV Medical Care - 23 Testing Site Types, United States, 2013 MMWR. Weekly. June 26, 2015 / 64(24);663-667 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6424a3.htm - ↑ 74.0 74.1 Sax PE HIV and ID Observations (Blog). July 7, 2105 For HIV in the USA, Not in Care Exceeds the Undiagnosed - Solutions Welcome. http://blogs.jwatch.org/hiv-id-observations/index.php/for-hiv-in-the-usa-not-in-care-exceeds-the-undiagnosed-solutions-welcome/2015/07/07/
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 Caskey M et al. Viraemia suppressed in HIV-1-infected humans by broadly neutralizing antibody 3BNC117. Nature 2015 Jun 25; 522:487 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25855300
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 The INSIGHT START Study Group Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. July 20, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26192873 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1506816
Abdool Karim SS Overcoming Impediments to Global Implementation of Early Antiretroviral Therapy. N Engl J Med. July 20, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26193047 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1508527 - ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 Braun DL et al. Frequency and spectrum of unexpected clinical manifestations of primary HIV-1 infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Sep 15;61(6):1013-21. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25991469
- ↑ WHO News Release. Sept 30, 2015 Treat all people living with HIV, offer antiretrovirals as additional prevention choice for people at "substantial" risk. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/hiv-treat-all-recommendation/en/
WHO Guidelines. Sept 2015 Guideline on When to Start Antiretroviral Therapy and on Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/186275/1/9789241509565_eng.pdf?ua=1 - ↑ Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG et al Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jan;58(1):1-10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24343580 Free Article
- ↑ Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P et al for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Feb;58(3):309-18. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24421306 Free Article
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 Rodger AJ et al. Sexual activity without condoms and risk of HIV transmission in serodifferent couples when the HIV-positive partner is using suppressive antiretroviral therapy. JAMA 2016 Jul 12; 316:171. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27404185
Daar ES, Corado K. Condomless sex with virologically suppressed HIV-infected individuals: How safe is it? JAMA 2016 Jul 12; 316:149. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27404181 - ↑ 82.0 82.1 Gunthard HF et al Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults. 2016 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society. JAMA. 2016;316(2):191- <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27404187 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2533073
Mayer KH, Krakower DS. Antiretrovirals for HIV Treatment and Prevention: The Challenges of Success. JAMA. 2016 Jul 12;316(2):151-153. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27404182 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2533044 - ↑ 83.0 83.1 Ofotokun I, Titanji K, Lahiri CD et al. A single-dose zoledronic acid infusion prevents antiretroviral therapy-induced bone loss in treatment-naive HIV-infected patients: A phase IIb trial. Clin Infect Dis 2016 May 18 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27193748 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/06/14/cid.ciw331
- ↑ Beaulaurier R, Fortuna K, Lind D, Emlet CA. Attitudes and stereotypes regarding older women and HIV risk. J Women Aging. 2014;26(4):351-68. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25133946
- ↑ Miller CJ, Baker JV, Bormann AM et al Adjudicated morbidity and mortality outcomes by age among individuals with HIV infection on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One. 2014 Apr 11;9(4):e95061 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24728071 Free PMC Article
- ↑ High KP, Brennan-Ing M, Clifford DB et al HIV and aging: state of knowledge and areas of critical need for research. A report to the NIH Office of AIDS Research by the HIV and Aging Working Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012 Jul 1;60 Suppl 1:S1-18. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22688010 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 World Health Organization (WHO) WHO issues new guidance on HIV self-testing ahead of World AIDS Day. News release. Nov 29, 2016 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/world-aids-day/en/
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 El-Sadr WM, Donnell D, Beauchamp G et al. Financial incentives for linkage to care and viral suppression among HIV-positive patients: A randomized clinical trial (HPTN 065). JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 19 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28628702 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2631560
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 World Health Organization (WHO) WHO urges action against HIV drug resistance threat. News release. July 20, 2017 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/hiv-drug-resistance/en/
World Health Organization (WHO) HIV DRUG RESISTANCE REPORT 2017 http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/255896/1/9789241512831-eng.pdf - ↑ 90.0 90.1 Margolis DA, Gonzalez-Garcia J, Stellbrink HJ et al Long-acting intramuscular cabotegravir and rilpivirine in adults with HIV-1 infection (LATTE-2): 96-week results of a randomised, open-label, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. July 21, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28750935 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)31917-7/fulltext
Boyd MA, Cooper DA Long-acting injectable ART: next revolution in HIV? Lancet. July 21, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28750936 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)31962-1/fulltext - ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 Brooks JT, Kawwass JF, Smith DK, et al. Effects of Antiretroviral Therapy to Prevent HIV Transmission to Women in Couples Attempting Conception When the Man Has HIV Infection - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017;66:859-860 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6632e1.htm
- ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Koenig SP, Dorvil N, Devieux JG et al. Same-day HIV testing with initiation of antiretroviral therapy versus standard care for persons living with HIV: A randomized unblinded trial. PLoS Med 2017 Jul 25; 14:e1002357 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742880 Free PMC Article <Internet> http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002357
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Valverde EE, Oster AM, Xu S, Wertheim JO, Hernandez AL. HIV transmission dynamics among foreign-born persons in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2017 Sep 7 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28902072
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 FDA News Release. November 21, 2017 FDA approves first two-drug regimen for certain patients with HIV. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm586305.htm
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 Elbendary AM, James WD Medscape: Malakoplakia https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1055606-overview
- ↑ Hanson KE, Reckleff J, Hicks L, Castellano C, Hicks CB. Unsuspected HIV infection in patients presenting with acute meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Aug 1;47(3):433-4. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18605915 Free Article
- ↑ 97.0 97.1 Singh S, Song R, Johnson AS, McCray E, Hall I. HIV Incidence, HIV Prevalence, and Undiagnosed HIV Infections in Men Who Have Sex With Men, United States. Ann Intern Med. March 18, 2018. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554663 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2675979/hiv-incidence-hiv-prevalence-undiagnosed-hiv-infections-men-who-have
- ↑ 98.0 98.1 Labhardt ND, Ringera I, Lejone TI et al. Effect of offering same-day ART vs usual health facility referral during home-based HIV testing on linkage to care and viral suppression among adults with HIV in Lesotho: The CASCADE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2018 Mar 20; 319:1103. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29509839 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2674479
Katz IT, Ehrenkranz P, El-Sadr W. The global HIV epidemic: What will it take to get to the finish line? JAMA 2018 Mar 20; 319:1094 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29509836 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2674478 - ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 Saag MS, Benson CA, Gandhi RT et al Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults. 2018 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society - USA Panel. JAMA. 2018;320(4):379-396 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30043070 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2688574
Riddell J 4th 2018 IAS-USA Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV. Building on Decades of Progress. JAMA. 2018;320(4):347-349 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30043044 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2688545 - ↑ 100.0 100.1 100.2 Bavinton BR, Pinto AN, Phanuphak N et al. Viral suppression and HIV transmission in serodiscordant male couples: An international, prospective, observational, cohort study. Lancet HIV 2018 Jul 16; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30025681 https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanhiv/article/PIIS2352-3018(18)30132-2/fulltext
- ↑ Tschachler E. The dermatologist and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Clin Dermatol. 2014 Mar-Apr;32(2):286-9. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24559565
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Gupta RK, Abdul-jawad S, McCoy LE et al HIV-1 remission following CCR5 32/32 haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Nature (2019) March 5. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30836379 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1027-4
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV Transmission Along the Continuum of Care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. ePub: 18 March 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6811e1.htm
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 104.2 Feinstein MJ, Hsue PY, Benjamin LA et al Characteristics, Prevention, and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in People Living With HIV: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. June 3, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31154814 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000695
- ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 World Health Organization (WHO). News Release. July 22, 2019 WHO recommends dolutegravir as preferred HIV treatment option in all populations. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/22-07-2019-who-recommends-dolutegravir-as-preferred-hiv-treatment-option-in-all-populations
Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M et al Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. July 22, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31329379 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1905230
Raesima MM, Ogbuabo CM, Thomas V et al Dolutegravir Use at Conception - Additional Surveillance Data from Botswana. N Engl J Med. July 22, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31329378 - ↑ Brusca RM, Hanna DB, Wada NI et al. Subclinical cardiovascular disease in HIV controller and long-term nonprogressor populations. HIV Med 2019 Nov 14; https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/hiv.12820
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 Orkin C, Arasteh K, Hernandez-Mora G et al Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020, March 4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32130806 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1909512
Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ et s; Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020, March 4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32130809 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1904398
Currier JS Monthly Injectable Antiretroviral Therapy - Version 1.0 of a New Treatment Approach. N Engl J Med. 2020, March 4 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32130808 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe2002199 - ↑ 108.0 108.1 Saag MS, Gandhi RT, Hoy JF, et al Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults. 2020 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. Published online October 14, 2020 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33052386 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2771873
- ↑ 109.0 109.1 Henderson DK et al. Management of healthcare personnel living with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or human immunodeficiency virus in US healthcare institutions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020 Oct 14 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33050959 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/infection-control-and-hospital-epidemiology/article/management-of-healthcare-personnel-living-with-hepatitis-b-hepatitis-c-or-human-immunodeficiency-virus-in-us-healthcare-institutions/71C331662FBEDDF7F62369E22A22E4F0
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 Saag MS HIV Infection - Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment. N Engl J Med 2021; 384:2131-2143. June 3 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34077645 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp1915826
- ↑ 111.0 111.1 Murray MM, Lin J, Buros Stein A et al. Relationship of polypharmacy to HIV RNA suppression in people aged >= 50 years living with HIV. HIV Med 2021 Jun 2 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34077632 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hiv.13122
- ↑ 112.0 112.1 112.2 112.3 112.4 112.5 112.6 112.7 112.8 Gandhi RT, Bedimo R, Hoy JF et al Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults. 2022 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society - USA Panel. JAMA. Published online December 1, 2022. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36454551 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2799240
Haddad M et al. Ending the HIV epidemic: We have the tools, do we have the will? JAMA 2022 Dec 1; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36454555 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2799239 - ↑ 113.0 113.1 Grinspoon SK et al Pitavastatin to prevent cardiovascular disease in HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2023 Jul 23; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37486775 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2304146
- ↑ 114.0 114.1 NEJM Knowledge+ Complex Medical Care
- ↑ What is 'Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for America'? https://www.hiv.gov/ending-hiv-epidemic 1156) New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute HIV Clinical Resource http://www.hivguidelines.org/Content.aspx
diagnostic, monitoring, and resistance tests for HIV http://www.hivguidelines.org/public_html/a-tests/a-tests.htm
Anxiety disorders in patients with HIV/AIDS http://www.hivguidelines.org/public_html/center/clinical-guidelines/mental_health_guidelines/mental_health/supp_html_files/mental_health_page8.htm
personality disorders in patients with HIV/AIDS http://www.hivguidelines.org/public_html/center/clinical-guidelines/mental_health_guidelines/mental_health/supp_html_files/mental_health_page3.htm