hepatitis C infection
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Introduction
Also see viral hepatitis.
Etiology
- hepatitis C virus
- associated disorders
Epidemiology
- worldwide problem
- 1-2% of Americans; has surpassed HIV1 as a cause of death in the USA[38]
- 1 in 20 baby boomers has HCV & does not know it[41]
- incidence of new infections appears to be declining
- rarely spread sexually[47]
- generally in patients with multiple sexual partners
- risk of sexual transmission in < 5% in monogomous relationships
- 10 year risk of transmission during vaginal intercourse with monogomous partner is < 0.1%[19]
- risk factors:
- injection drug use
- sexual or household contact with HCV carriers
- blood transfusion (especially prior to 1993)
- occupational exposure
- see screening for hepatitis C[99]
- transfusion associated risk is now 1/10,000 units
- high prevalence among injection drug users & hemophiliacs (60-90%)
- HCV may be viable & infective for 9 weeks in a used tuberculin syringe with removable needle; infectivity from insulin syringe with permanently attached needle is 1 day[33]
- 20% of patients on hemodialysis
- neonatal transmission < 5%, < 6%[83]
- 60% of patients infected with hepatitis C virus exhibit chronic infection[48]
- black patients more often fall into this group
- 40% of patients infected with hepatitis C show spontaneous resolution[48]
- white & Asian patients more often fall into this group
- increase in hepatitis C detection in women of child-bearing age 2011-2014[76], 2006-2014 (2-fold)[83] mainly due to increased in injection drug abuse[83]
Pathology
- incubation period: 2 weeks to 6 months
- 44% of patients with symptomatic acute hepatitis C spontaneously clear the virus[14]
- patients with asymptomatic infection may not clear virus
- 60-85% of patients who acquire HCV infection remain chronically infected[5]
- liver biopsy
- lymphocytic portal inflammation with nodular lymphoid aggregates
- steatosis
- fibrosis is variable[5]
Genetics
- > 10 genotypes (1,2,3 ...)
- alleles on chromosome 19, near the interleukin-28B gene & on chromosome 6, near HLA class II genes contribute to risk of chronic hepatitis C vs spontaneous resolution[48]
- genetic variation in IFNL4 is associated with susceptibility to hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection
Clinical manifestations
- most patients remain asymptomatic
- acute hepatitis is uncommon
- progresses to chronic hepatitis (85-100%)
- fulminant hepatitis is rare (< 5%)
- symptoms generally result from chronic hepatitis
- fever uncommon
- nausea/vomiting common
- immune complex disease common
- cutaneous leukocytoclastic vasculitis
- mixed cryoglobulinemia (types 2 & 3)
- other skin manifestations:
- arthralgias & arthritis
- lymphocytic sialoadenitis
- immune thrombocytopenia
- renal disease
- membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis & mixed cryoglobulinemia (most common)
- mesangioprolifergative glomerulonephritis
- membranous nephropathy & polyarteritis nodosa
Laboratory
- HCV Ab in serum/plasma/blood
- HCV recombinant immunoblot assay (RIBA II)
- other hepatitis C virus serology as indicated
- hepatitis C virus antigen as indicated
- RT-PCR for hepatitis C virus RNA
- confirmation if serology for HCV positive[52]
- viral titer does not predict disease severity
- coinfection with HIV causes HCV RNA to rise following initiation of antiviral therapy- significance unknown[24]
- viral clearance predicts lower mortality[45]
- patients with positive serology but negative HCV RNA do not have hepatitis C infection[5]
- presence of specific disorders[5]
- hepatitis C genotyping at the time of diagnosis[5]
- guides selection of treatment
- liver biopsy
- complete blood count (CBC)
- liver function tests
- serum alanine transaminase (serum ALT)
- levels of 400-600 U/L with acute infection
- mild elevations with chronic infection
- normal level does not exclude hepatitis C infection[5]
- serum aspartate transaminase (serum AST)*
- serum alkaline phosphatase (serum ALP)
- serum bilirubin
- prothrombin time (PT)
- serum alanine transaminase (serum ALT)
- iron studies: serum ferritin, serum iron, TIBC
- serum alpha-fetoprotein not routinely recommended[38]
- serum complement C4 may be low[5]
- rheumatoid factor (RF) may be positive (titer < 1:128)
- serum antinuclear antibody (ANA) may be positive[5]
- anti-hepatitis A IgG
- hepatitis B serology*
- HCV is difficult to culture & no good small animal model is available[33]
- baseline resistance testing
- before starting elbasvir/grazoprevir for HCV genotype 1a[92]
- see ARUP consult[42]
* reactivation of hepatitis B can occur during treatment of hepatitis C[5] (see Complications: below)
Diagnostic procedures
- if cirrhosis, upper GI endoscopy (all patients)*
* see cirrhosis for surveillance upper GI endoscopy
* see cirrhosis Diagnostic criteria: for clinical diagnosis of cirrhosis
Radiology
- abdominal ultrasound
- no prior imaging
- patients with cirrhosis should undergo surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma every 6 months[5]
Complications
- carrier state
- 85% of patients with anti-HCV have circulating levels of virus by RT-PCR
- chronic hepatitis
- 90% of patients with anti-HCV have evidence of chronic hepatitis on liver biopsy
- 25-30% progress to cirrhosis over a 20-30 year period
- alcohol increases the risk[6][28]
- thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 140,000/mm3), serum AST > 40 IU/L, spider nevi & male sex are the best predictors of cirrhosis[12]
- hepatocellular carcinoma may develop with chronic hepatitis (1-5%)[28]
- platelet count < 140,000/mm3, serum AST > 75 IU/L, male sex, poor response to treatment or no treatment are independent risk factors[29]
- successful treatment of hepatitis C reduces risk 76%[49]
- successful treatment of hepatitis C does not reduce risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis[54]
- hepatitis C virus rarely causes hepatocellular carcinoma in the absence of cirrhosis
- lipophilic statins (atorvastatin, simvastatin) may reduce (risk 3% vs 8%)[94]
- mixed cryoglobulinemia resulting in glomerulonephritis[5][53][56]
- 10% of symptomatic vaculitis due to cryoglobulinemia with symptom relapses after complete virologic response to therapy[91]
- treatment with direct-acting antiviral agents including daclatasvir, sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, simeprevir, sofosbuvir, ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir, dasabuvir/ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir, elbasvir/grazoprevir, can cause reactivation of hepatitis B in patients with current or previous hepatitis B infection
- 24% of patients with chronic hepatitis B[89]
- 1.4% with resolved hepatitis B infection[89]
- skin manifestations:
- necrolytic acral erythema
- also see clinical manifestations
- despite treatment resulting in hepatitis C cure, mortality remains high
- adjusted mortality per 1000 person-years 10-28 for patients without cirrhosis, & 68-118 for patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD)
- increased relative risk: without cirrhosis (RR=3.0-3.8), ESLD: (RR=9-14)
- causes of mortality: drug-related (24%), liver failure (18%), liver cancer (16%), other cancers (12%)[103]
* see clinical manifestations for renal complications
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C & non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
- disease interaction(s) of hepatitis C infection with psoriasis
Management
- treat comorbidities & reduce risk factors
- treatment of porphyria cutanea tarda takes priority over reducing risk factors
- indications for antiviral therapy
- symptomatic
- a period of 3 months of monitoring recommended for patients with acute HCV infection to allow for the 15-40% chance of spontaneous resolution prior to treatment[5]
- recommendation not endorsed[101] & not for period of 6 months
- patients whose disease does not resolve with 3 months are generally treated (all patients considered for treatment)[5]
- antiviral therapy of acute hepatitis C results in sustained clearance of virus in 80-95% of patients[14][59][60]
- women more likely than men to sustain clearance of virus
- a period of 3 months of monitoring recommended for patients with acute HCV infection to allow for the 15-40% chance of spontaneous resolution prior to treatment[5]
- treatment considered for:
- fluctuating or persistently elevated ALT
- moderate to severe inflammation & evidence of fibrosis on liver biopsy
- all patients should be considered for treatment[5][92] except those with short life expectancy[5]
- symptomatic
- contraindications to antiviral therapy
- active substance abuse (alcohol or drugs)
- severe comorbid condition
- uncontrolled psychiatric disorder (especially depression)
- renal transplantation
- severe autoimmune disorders
- any patient with comorbid condition other than liver disease with prognosis of < 10 years
- older age itself is not a contraindication[29]
- pregnancy
- latent or untreated hepatitis B infection[82]
- antiviral therapy
- daclatasvir (Daklinza) Bristol-Myers Squibb
- sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (Epclusa) Gilead Sciences
- usually leads to sustained virologic response at 12 weeks in injection drug users[88]
- ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (Harvoni) Gilead Sciences
- simeprevir (Olysio) Janssen
- sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) Gilead Sciences
- ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir (Technivie) Abbvie
- dasabuvir/ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir (Viekira Pak) Abbvie
- elbasvir/grazoprevir (Zepatier) Merck Sharp Dohme[79]
- sofosbuvir 400 mg plus ledipasvir 90 mg (Harvoni) daily for 12 weeks for HCV type 1[69] (see[69] for optional regimens)
- 95% effective in cirrhosis-free patients
- equally effective among previously untreated as well as previously treated patients, many with cirrhosis[60]
- 8 weeks of therapy equivalent to 12 weeks[59]
- white or black[90]
- cost effective for genotype 1 infection
- $12,825 more per quality-adjusted life year compared with standard of care[66]
- cost-effective for genotype 2 or 3 infection with cirrhosis or previous treatment with interferon[67]
- sofosbuvir 400 mg plus weight-based ribavirin (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 12 weeks for HCV type 2
- 24 weeks of therapy (see sofosbivur)[46]
- response in genotypes 2,3 more favorable than genotye 1
- with or without peginterferon superior in efficacy & tolerability versus peginterferon plus ribavirin, especially in patients with HCV genotype 1[51]
- sofosbuvir 400 mg plus weight-based ribavirin (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 24 weeks for HCV type 3
- pegylated interferon, ribavirin & sofosbuvir for HCV type 4
- ombitasvir, paritaprevir, & ritonavir PO QD. even in prior non-responders & patients with cirrhosis[72]
- sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (Epclusa) in combination with ribavirin FDA-approved for treatment of all 6 genotypes of HCV[75]
- sofosbuvir/velpatasvir/voxilaprevir (Vosevi) FDA-approved for treatment of all 6 genotypes of HCV without cirrhosis[85]
- glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (Mavyret)
- FDA-approved for genotypes 1-6 with 8 weeks of treatment
- useful in patients with renal failure
- FDA-approved to treat all genotypes of hepatitis C in children
- FDA-approved for genotypes 1-6 with 8 weeks of treatment
- simeprevir recommended for FDA-approval[55]
- grazoprevir in combination with elbasvir (Zepatier) once a day for treatment-naive hepatitis C infection genotypes 1,4,6[68]
- interferon-based regimens have fallen out of favor
- response to therapy
- discontinue treatment of type 1 if HCV RNA levels don't decrease by at least log 2 after 12 weeks of treatment
- types 2 & 3 more responsive to treatment than type 1[13][21]
- 12 weeks of therapy for types 2 or 3 sufficient for patients who test negative for HCV RNA after 4 weeks[22]
- 24 weeks of therapy for types 2 & 3[5]
- successful antiviral treatment of HCV diminishes risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis[32]
- 10 year survival in patients with sustained virologic response (91%) similar to general population vs 74% for those without sustained response[64]
- effectively treated patients can be re-infected[65]
- apparently effective resistance to infection does not develop
- for type 1, virologic response rates >95% for 6 regimens[81]
- for type 3 without cirrhosis, sofosbuvir plus velpatasvir or daclatasvir for 12 weeks most effective[81]
- patients with HIV1, severe kidney disease, or liver transplant with high response rates & limited adverse events[81]
- black & hispanics may be less likely to achieve sustained virologic response compared to whites (adjusted odds ratio 0.76-0.77)[80]
- sofosbuvir, velpatasvir, & voxilaprevir for 12 weeks may be indicated for prior treatment failure[84]
- direct-acting antiviral treatment is associated with reduced risks for mortality (RR=0.48) & hepatocellular carcinoma (RR=0.66)[93]
- hepatitis C treatment has significant adverse effects
- benefits of treatment should be weighted against risks[5]
- guidelines for referral to gastroenterology (GI)
- cirrhosis
- ascites (especially with bacterial peritonitis)
- encephalopathy
- esophageal varices
- candidates for transplant evaluation
- antiviral treatment can be provided in primary care[87]
- liver transplantation for end-stage cirrhosis
- interferon-free, all-oral antiviral regimen post transplantation
- preferred treatments[102]
- glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (Mavyret) for 8 weeks
- sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (Epclusa) for 12 weeks
- no pretreatment genotyping or on-treatment lab monitoring or visits necessary
- applicable to people living with HIV.
- interrupting HCV treatment for up to 7 days does not affect sustained virologic response [102
- experimental & early therapies
- new compound BMS-790052 (May 2010) holds promise[33]
- oral regimen of protease inhibitor danoprevir, plus nucleoside polymerase inhibitor RG7128 may suppress HCV replication[34]
- daclatasvir 60 mg QD + asunaprevir 600 mg BID in combination with peginterferon & ribavirin for 12-24 weeks may be beneficial in peginterferon/ribavirin unresponsive patients with HCV genotype 1 infection (90% response)[36]; 36% response with daclatasvir + asunaprevir alone
- microRNA-based treatment appears effective, but relapse occurs when treatment is dicontinued[50]
- interferon-free oral treatment (direct-acting antivirals)
- daclatasvir (60 mg daily) plus sofosbuvir (400 mg daily) with or without ribavirin for 24 weeks in patients with genotype 1 infection[57]
- ABT-450/r (protease inhibitor ABT-450 plus ritonavir 100 mg) in daily doses of 100 mg, 150 mg, or 200 mg with ABT-267 (an NS5A inhibitor; 25 mg daily) or ABT-333 (nonnucleoside polymerase inhibitor; 400 mg twice daily) or both for 8, 12, or 24 weeks[57]
- ABT-450 150 mg, ritonavir 100 mg, ombitasvir 25 mg QD, dasabuvir 250 mg BID, & ribavirin adjusted to body weight for 12-24 weeks[60]
- simeprevir plus sofosbuvir, with or without ribavirin, for 12 or 24 weeks for HCV genotype 1 in treatment-naive patients or patients that had not responded to peginterferon plus ribavirin[62]
- daclatasvir plus asunaprevir for 24 weeks for HCV genotype 1b in treatment-naive patients or patients who have failed peginterferon plus ribavirin[62]
- regimens from ACP (MKSAP18)[5]
- grazoprevir + elbasvir
- paritaprevir + ombitasvir + dasabuvir
- daclatasvir + sofosbuvir
- ledipasvir + sofosbuvir (Harvoni)
- velpatasvir + sofosbuvir (Epclusa)[5]
- Technivie (ombitasvir, paritaprevir, ritonavir) & Viekira XR (dasabuvir sodium, ombitasvir, paritaprevir, ritonavir) have been discontinued by AbbVie in 2019[105]
- hydroxychloroquine for arthritis/arthralgias
- vaccinations:
- hepatitis A vaccination if anti-hepatitis A IgG negative
- Hepatitis B vaccination if hepatitis B exposure negative
- patient education
- alcohol is associated with more severe disease
- patients should not donate blood
- patients should not share razors or toothbrushes
- open cuts should be covered
- avoid unprotected sex during menstruation or in the presence of genital sores
- progression of disease is slow
- 10 year mortality is unchanged[10]
- decision to treat is not urgent
- safety of breast-feeding is not confirmed
- some studies have found HCV in breast milk
- no data to confirm that HCV can be transmitted by breast feeding
- breast feeding is not associated with increased risk of transmission of hepatitis C from mother to infant[101]
- antiviral treatment for hepatitis C is not necessary to proceed with breast feeding[101]
- abstain from breast feeding if nippled become cracked or bleeding[101]
- breast feeding is not associated with increased risk of transmission of hepatitis C from mother to infant[101]
- risk of HCV transmission
- risk of vertical transmission to fetus is 5% unlessmother is coinfected with HIV (30%)
- risk of heterosexual transmission in monogomous relationships is 5%
- low risk of transmission among nonsexual household contacts
- transmission occurs by parenteral contact with blood or body fluids
- follow-up yearly
- focused physical examination
- liver function tests[27]
- prognosis
- disease progression over 20 years is low in patients without comorbitities[23][27]
- direct-acting activirals associated with improved outcomes, including long-term overall survival[100]
* interferon-based regimens have fallen out of favor
- combination therapy peginterferon alfa plus ribavirin
- peginterferon alfa-2A or peginterferon alfa-2B
- prior to therapy
- liver biopsy
- hepatitis C genotyping
- recommended prior to therapy
- patients with type 1b have a poor response
- lower doses & shorter duration of therapy for types 2 & 3
- prior to therapy
- interferon alfa (historically, early treatment)
- peginterferon alfa 2b (Peg-Intron) may be more effective form of interferon-alfa[21]
- peginterferon alfa 2a (Pegasys) as effective as peginterferon alfa 2b (Peg-Intron)[11][30]
- peginterferon alfa 2a (Pegasys) 180 ug/week + ribavirin (Virazole) 1000-1200 mg QD divided BID
- response associated with disappearance of HCV RNA from serum
- serial transaminases
- discontinue after 3 months if transaminases do not normalize
- response to therapy:
- may diminish progression to cirrhosis
- may diminish risk of hepatocellular carcinoma
- more severe disease more likely to respond[29]
- peginterferon alfa-2A or peginterferon alfa-2B
- telaprevir (Incivek) in combination with peginterferon & ribavirin may shorten duration of therapy[36]
- boceprevir (Victrelis) in combination with peginterferon & ribavirin for treatment of chronic hepatitis C genotype 1
- telaprevir (Incivek) or boceprevir (Victrelis) in combination with peginterferon alfa 2a (Pegasys) & ribavarin for genotype 1 [5, 44]
Notes
- see screening for hepatitis C
- Project ECHO, a weekly videoconferencing program, enables primary care clinicians to manage hepatitis C virus infection & increases rates of antiviral treatment[61]
- Medicaid eligibility for HCV treatment with sofosbuvir often restricted* to stage 3 or 4, & alcohol abstinence for 6 months[70]
- current threshold for health care providers allowed to participate in higher-risk healthcare-associated procedures is undetectble for HCV RNA[98]
* depends upon state
More general terms
More specific terms
Additional terms
- chronic hepatitis
- hepatitis C virus
- hepatitis C virus (HCV) serology
- hepatitis C virus RNA (HCV RNA)
- screening for hepatitis C
References
- ↑ Miller & Purcell Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990 Mar;87(6):2057-61
- ↑ Manual of Medical Therapeutics, 28th ed, Ewald & McKenzie (eds), Little, Brown & Co, Boston, 1995, pg 369
- ↑ Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Hepatitis C Prevention & Screening Recommendations, 9/21/99
- ↑ Journal Watch vol 19 # 24, pg 193-94, Dec 15, 1999
- ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Journal Watch 21(5):43, 2001 Harris DR et al The relationship of acute transfusion-associated hepatitis to the development of cirrhosis in the presence of alcohol abuse. Ann Intern Med 134:120, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11177315
- ↑ Journal Watch 21(21):174, 2001 Manns MP et al Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial. Lancet 358:958, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11583749
- ↑ Journal Watch 21(22):175, 2001 Jaeckel E et al Treatment of acute hepatitis C with interferon alfa-2b. N Engl J Med 345:1452, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794193
- ↑ Journal Watch 22(7):54-55, 2002 Falck-Ytter Y et al Surprisingly small effect of antiviral treatment in patients with hepatitis C. Ann Intern Med 136:288, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11848726
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Journal Watch 22(8):60, 2002 Harris HE et al Clinical course of hepatitis C virus during the first decade of infection: cohort study. BMJ 324:450, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11859045
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Journal Watch 22(21):156, 2002 Fried MW et al Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 347:975, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324553
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Journal Watch 22(23):174, 2002 Forns X et al Identification of chronic hepatitis C patients without hepatic fibrosis by a simple predictive model Hepatology 36:986, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12297848
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Journal Watch 23(1):12, 2003 National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference, Hepatology 36:S1-S252 http://hepatology2.aasldjournals.org http://consensys.nih.gov/con/116/116cdc_intro.htm
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Journal Watch 23(17):136, 2003 Gerlach JT et al Acute hepatitis C: high rate of both spontaneous and treatment-induced viral clearance. Gastroenterology 125:80, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12851873
- ↑ Journal Watch 23(21):168, 2003 Davis GL et al Early virologic response to treatment with peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 38:645, 2003 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12939591 <Internet> http://consensus,nih.gov/cons/116/hepatitis_c_consensus.pdf
- ↑ Castillo I et al Occult hepatitis C virus infection in patients in whom the etiology of persistently abnormal results of liver-function tests is unknown. J Infect dis 189:7, 2004 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14702147
Lerat H & Holinger FB Hepatitis C virus (HCV) occult infection or occult HCV RNA detection? J Infect Dis 189:3, 2004 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14702146 - ↑ Journal Watch 24(8):66, 2004 US Preventive Services Task Force, Ann Intern Med, 140:462, 2004 http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/3rduspstf/hepcscr.htm Chou R et al, Screening for hepatitis C virus infection: A review of the evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force, Ann Intern Med, 140:465, 2004 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15023713 <Internet> http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/3rduspstf/hepcrev.htm
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Journal Watch 24(11):90, 2004 Shiffman ML, Di Bisceglie AM, Lindsay KL, Morishima C, Wright EC, Everson GT, Lok AS, Morgan TR, Bonkovsky HL, Lee WM, Dienstag JL, Ghany MG, Goodman ZD, Everhart JE; Hepatitis C Antiviral Long-Term Treatment Against Cirrhosis Trial Group. Peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin in patients with chronic hepatitis C who have failed prior treatment. Gastroenterology. 2004 Apr;126(4):1015-23; discussion 947. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15057741
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Journal Watch 24(13):106-107, 2004 Vandelli C, Renzo F, Romano L, Tisminetzky S, De Palma M, Stroffolini T, Ventura E, Zanetti A. Lack of evidence of sexual transmission of hepatitis C among monogamous couples: results of a 10-year prospective follow-up study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004 May;99(5):855-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15128350
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Prescriber's Letter 11(7):39 2004 Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=200708&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Journal Watch 25(2):18, 2005 Carrat F, Bani-Sadr F, Pol S, Rosenthal E, Lunel-Fabiani F, Benzekri A, Morand P, Goujard C, Pialoux G, Piroth L, Salmon-Ceron D, Degott C, Cacoub P, Perronne C; ANRS HCO2 RIBAVIC Study Team. Pegylated interferon alfa-2b vs standard interferon alfa-2b, plus ribavirin, for chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004 Dec 15;292(23):2839-48. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15598915
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Journal Watch 25(16):129-30, 2005 Mangia A, Santoro R, Minerva N, Ricci GL, Carretta V, Persico M, Vinelli F, Scotto G, Bacca D, Annese M, Romano M, Zechini F, Sogari F, Spirito F, Andriulli A. Peginterferon alfa-2b and ribavirin for 12 vs. 24 weeks in HCV genotype 2 or 3. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jun 23;352(25):2609-17. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15972867
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Wiese M, Grungreiff K, Guthoff W, Lafrenz M, Oesen U, Porst H; East German Hepatitis C Study Group. Outcome in a hepatitis C (genotype 1b) single source outbreak in Germany--a 25-year multicenter study. J Hepatol. 2005 Oct;43(4):590-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16237783
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Rotman Y, Liang TJ. Coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus: virological, immunological, and clinical outcomes. J Virol. 2009 Aug;83(15):7366-74 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19420073
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Berg T et al, Extended treatment duration for hepatitis C virus type 1: Comparing 48 vs 72 weeks of peginterferon-alpha-2 plus ribavirin Gastroenterology 2006, 130:1086 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618403
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Taliani G et al, Pegylated interferon alpha-2b plus ribavirin in the retreatment of interferon-riavirin non-responder patients. Gastroenterology 2006, 130:1098 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618404
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Persico M et al, Hepatitis C virus carriers with persistently normal ALT levels: Biological peculiarities and update of the natural history of liver disease at 10 years. J Viral Hepat 2006, 13:290 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16637858
Shiffman ML et al, Chronic hepatitis C in patients with persistently normal alanine transaminase levels. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006, 4:645 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16630770 - ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Sangiovanni A, Prati GM, Fasani P, Ronchi G, Romeo R, Manini M, Del Ninno E, Morabito A, Colombo M. The natural history of compensated cirrhosis due to hepatitis C virus: A 17-year cohort study of 214 patients. Hepatology. 2006 Jun;43(6):1303-10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729298
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Ikeda K et al. Necessities of interferon therapy in elderly patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am J Med 2009 May; 122:479. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19375558
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Ghany MG et al AASLD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Diagnosis, Management, and Treatment of Hepatitis C: An Update American Association for the Study Liver Diseases (AASLD) 2009, Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/hep.22759 http://www.aasld.org/practiceguidelines/Documents/AASLD_PG--diagnosis_of_HEP_C_2009.pdf
Ghany MG, Strader DB, Thomas DL, Seeff LB; American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Diagnosis, management, and treatment of hepatitis C: an update. Hepatology. 2009 Apr;49(4):1335-74. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19330875 - ↑ McHutchison JG et al Peginterferon alfa-2b or alfa-2a with ribavirin for treatment of hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 2009 Aug 6; 361:580. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19625712
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Singal AK et al. Antiviral therapy reduces risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010 Feb; 8:192. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19879972
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Gao M et al. Chemical genetics strategy identifies an HCV NS5A inhibitor with a potent clinical effect. Nature 2010 May 6; 465:96. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20410884
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Paintsil E et al. Survival of hepatitis C virus in syringes: Implication for transmission among injection drug users. J Infect Dis 2010 Oct 1; 202:984 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20726768
Rich JD and Taylor LE. The beginning of a new era in understanding hepatitis C virus prevention. J Infect Dis 2010 Oct 1; 202:981 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20726769 - ↑ Gane EJ et al. Oral combination therapy with a nucleoside polymerase inhibitor (RG7128) and danoprevir for chronic hepatitis C genotype 1 infection (INFORM-1): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation trial. Lancet 2010 Oct 30; 376:1467. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20951424
Thomas DL. Curing hepatitis C with pills: A step toward global control. Lancet 2010 Oct 30; 376:1441. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20951421 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 FDA NEWS RELEASE: May 23, 2011 FDA approves Incivek for hepatitis C http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm256299.htm
Jacobson IM et al Telaprevir for previously untreated chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 2011 Jun 23; 364:2405 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21696307
Zeuzem S et al. Telaprevir for retreatment of HCV infection. N Engl J Med 2011 Jun 23; 364:2417 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21696308 - ↑ Lok AS et al. Preliminary study of two antiviral agents for hepatitis C genotype 1. N Engl J Med 2012 Jan 19; 366:216. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22256805
Chung RT. A watershed moment in the treatment of hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 2012 Jan 19; 366:273. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22213804 - ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Sterling RK et al. Frequency of elevated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) biomarkers in patients with advanced hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol 2012 Jan; 107:64. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21931376
- ↑ Ly KN et al The Increasing Burden of Mortality From Viral Hepatitis in the United States Between 1999 and 2007 Annals of Internal Medicine 2012 156(4):271-278 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351712 <Internet> http://www.annals.org/content/156/4/271.abstract
Alter HJ and Liang TJ et al Hepatitis C: The End of the Beginning and Possibly the Beginning of the End Annals of Internal Medicine 2012 156(4):317-318 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22351718 <Internet> http://www.annals.org/content/156/4/317.extract - ↑ Coffin PO et al. Cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of general population screening for hepatitis C. Clin Infect Dis 2012 May 1; 54:1259 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22412061
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 CDC Announces First Ever National Hepatitis Testing Day and Proposes that All Baby Boomers Be Tested Once for Hepatitis C CDC Press Release, May 18, 2012 http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/HepTestingRecsPressRelease2012.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Recommendations for the Identification of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Persons Born During 1945-1965 MMWR 61(4) August 17, 2012 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6104.pdf (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Jan 2018) - ↑ 42.0 42.1 ARUP Consult: Hepatitis C Virus - HCV The Physician's Guide to Laboratory Test Selection & Interpretation https://www.arupconsult.com/content/hepatitis-c-virus
Hepatitis C Virus Testing Algorithm https://arupconsult.com/algorithm/hepatitis-c-virus-testing-algorithm - ↑ Prescriber's Letter 19(11): 2012 COMMENTARY: Identifying Hepatitis C Infection in Baby Boomers SPECIAL REPORT: Managing Hepatitis C Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=281121&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Chou R et al Comparative Effectiveness of Antiviral Treatment for Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Adults: A Systematic Review. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Jan 15;158(2):114-23. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23437439 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1402433
John M. Eisenberg Center for Clinical Decisions and Communications Science. Comparative Effectiveness Review Summary Guides for Clinicians [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Comparative Effectiveness of Treatments for Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Adults. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2007-2012 Nov 27. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23285487 - ↑ 45.0 45.1 van der Meer AJ et al Association between sustained virological response and all-cause mortality among patients with chronic hepatitis C and advanced hepatic fibrosis. JAMA 2012 Dec 26; 308:2584. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23268517
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Gane EJ et al. Nucleotide polymerase inhibitor sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 2013 Jan 3; 368:34. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23281974
Poordad F et al. Exploratory study of oral combination antiviral therapy for hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 2013 Jan 3; 368:45 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23281975 - ↑ 47.0 47.1 Terrault NA et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus among monogamous heterosexual couples: The HCV Partners Study. Hepatology 2013 Mar; 57:881. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23175457
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 Duggal P et al. Genome-wide association study of spontaneous resolution of hepatitis C virus infection: Data from multiple cohorts. Ann Intern Med 2013 Feb 19; 158:235. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23420232
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Morgan RL et al. Eradication of hepatitis C virus infection and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Intern Med 2013 Mar 5; 158:329. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23460056
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Janssen HLA et al Treatment of HCV Infection by Targeting MicroRNA. N Engl J Med. March 27, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23534542 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1209026
Lieberman J and Sarnow P Micromanaging Hepatitis C Virus. N Engl J Med. March 27, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23534545 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1301348 - ↑ 51.0 51.1 Lawitz E et al. Sofosbuvir for previously untreated chronic hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 2013 Apr 23; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23607594 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1214853
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Testing for HCV Infection: An Update of Guidance for Clinicians and Laboratorians MMWR. May 7, 2013 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm62e0507a2.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vital Signs: Evaluation of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Testing and Reporting - Eight U.S. Sites, 2005-2011 MMWR. May 7, 2013 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm62e0507a1.htm - ↑ 53.0 53.1 Roccatello D, Fornasieri A, Giachino O et al Multicenter study on hepatitis C virus-related cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007 Jan;49(1):69-82. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17185147
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Aleman S et al. A risk for hepatocellular carcinoma persists long-term after sustained virologic response in patients with hepatitis C- associated liver cirrhosis. Clin Infect Dis 2013 Jul 15; 57:230. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23616492 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/2/230?ijkey=6cb2b72ecb1c4a0e822d48a69da9701ad7c35163&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha
Pereira OC and Feld JJ. Sustained virologic response for patients with hepatitis C- related cirrhosis: A major milestone, but not quite a cure. Clin Infect Dis 2013 Jul 15; 57:237. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23616493 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/2/237?ijkey=a6a89b703a2adf2fd78984083638e3c602ec053d&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha - ↑ 55.0 55.1 Physician's First Watch, October 28, 2013 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Charles ED, Dustin LB. Hepatitis C virus-induced cryoglobulinemia. Kidney Int. 2009 Oct;76(8):818-24 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19606079
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Sulkowski MS et al. Daclatasvir plus sofosbuvir for previously treated or untreated chronic HCV infection. N Engl J Med 2014 Jan 16; 370:211 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24428467 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1306218
Kowdley KV et al. Phase 2b trial of interferon-free therapy for hepatitis C virus genotype 1. N Engl J Med 2014 Jan 16; 370:222 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24428468 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1306227 - ↑ WHO issues its first hepatitis C treatment guidelines http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/hepatitis-guidelines/en/
World Health Organization (WHO) GUIDELINES FOR THE SCREENING, CARE AND TREATMENT OF PERSONS WITH HEPATITIS C INFECTION. April 2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/111747/1/9789241548755_eng.pdf?ua=1 corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn May 2016 - ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Kowdley JV et al Ledipasvir and Sofosbuvir for 8 or 12 Weeks for Chronic HCV without Cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. April 11, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24720702 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1402355
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Afdhal N et al Ledipasvir and Sofosbuvir for Previously Treated HCV Genotype 1 Infection. N Engl J Med. April 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24725238 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1316366
Afdhal N et al Ledipasvir and Sofosbuvir for Untreated HCV Genotype 1 Infection. N Engl J Med. April 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24725239 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1402454
Poordad F et al ABT-450/r - Ombitasvir and Dasabuvir with Ribavirin for Hepatitis C with Cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. April 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24725237 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1402869
Hoofnagle JH and Sherker JH Therapy for Hepatitis C - The Costs of Success. N Engl J Med. April 12, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24725236 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1401508 - ↑ 61.0 61.1 Mitruka K et al Expanding Primary Care Capacity to Treat Hepatitis C Virus Infection Through an Evidence-Based Care Model - Arizona and Utah, 2012-2014. MMWR Weekly May 9, 2014 / 63(18);393-398 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6318a2.htm
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Manns M et al All-oral daclatasvir plus asunaprevir for hepatitis C virus genotype 1b: a multinational, phase 3, multicohort study. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 28 July 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25078304 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961059-X/abstract
Lawitz E et al Simeprevir plus sofosbuvir, with or without ribavirin, to treat chronic infection with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 in non-responders to pegylated interferon and ribavirin and treatment-naive patients: the COSMOS randomised study. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 28 July 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25078309 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961036-9/abstract
Gane E Hepatitis C beware - the end is nigh The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 28 July 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25078308 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961225-3/fulltext - ↑ 63.0 63.1 Kwo PY et al An Interferon-free Antiviral Regimen for HCV after Liver Transplantation. N Engl J Med. Nov 11, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25386767 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1408921
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 van der Meer AJ et al Life Expectancy in Patients With Chronic HCV Infection and Cirrhosis Compared With a General Population. JAMA. 2014;312(18):1927-1928. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25387192 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1930807
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Vanhommerig JW et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody dynamics following acute HCV infection and reinfection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2014 Dec 15; 59:1678 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25186590 <Internet> http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/59/12/1678
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 Najafzadeh M et al. Cost-effectiveness of novel regimens for the treatment of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med 2015 Mar 17; 162:407. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25775313 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2197177
Chhatwal J et al. Cost-effectiveness and budget impact of hepatitis C virus treatment with sofosbuvir and ledipasvir in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2015 Mar 17; 162:397. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25775312 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2197176 - ↑ 67.0 67.1 Linas BP et al The Cost-Effectiveness of Sofosbuvir-Based Regimens for Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 2 or 3 Infection. Ann Intern Med. Published online 30 March 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25820703 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2212248
Etzion O, Ghany MG A Cure for the High Cost of Hepatitis C Virus Treatment. Ann Intern Med. Published online 30 March 2015. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25820765 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2212249 - ↑ 68.0 68.1 Zeuzem S et al Grazoprevir-Elbasvir Combination Therapy for Treatment-Naive Cirrhotic and Noncirrhotic Patients With Chronic HCV Genotype 1, 4, or 6 Infection: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. Published online 24 April 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25909356 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2279766
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Infectious Disease Society of America Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C. June 2015. http://hcvguidelines.org/ http://www.hcvguidelines.org/full-report-view
Initial Treatment Box. Summary of Recommendations for Patients Who are Initiating Therapy for HCV Infection by HCV Genotype. http://www.hcvguidelines.org/node/72
Initial Treatment Table: Drug Interactions With Direct-Acting Antivirals and Selected Concomitant Medications http://www.hcvguidelines.org/full-report/initial-treatment-hcv-infection#drug-interactions - ↑ 70.0 70.1 Barua S et al. Restrictions for Medicaid reimbursement of sofosbuvir for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2015 Jun 30. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26120969 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2362306
Canary LA et al. Limited access to new hepatitis C virus treatment under state Medicaid programs. Ann Intern Med 2015 Jun 30. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26121095 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2362307
McCance-Katz EF and Valdiserri RO. Hepatitis C virus treatment and injection drug users: It is time to separate fact from fiction. Ann Intern Med 2015 Jun 30. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26120801 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2362305 - ↑ Vassilopoulos D, Calabrese LH Viral hepatitis: review of arthritic complications and therapy for arthritis in the presence of active HBV/HCV. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2013 Apr;15(4):319. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23436024
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Lawitz E et al. Efficacy and safety of ombitasvir, paritaprevir, and ritonavir in an open-label study of patients with genotype 1b chronic hepatitis C virus infection with and without cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2015 Oct; 149:971. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26170136 <Internet> http://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085%2815%2900936-1/abstract
- ↑ Liang TJ, Ghany MG. Current and future therapies for hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2013 May 16;368(20):1907-17 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23675659
Ghany MG, Liang TJ. Current and future therapies for hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2013 Aug 15;369(7):679-80. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23944318
Liang TJ, Ghany MG. Therapy of hepatitis C--back to the future. N Engl J Med. 2014 May 22;370(21):2043-7. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24795199 - ↑ Rosen HR Clinical practice. Chronic hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2429-38 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21696309
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 FDA News Release. June 28, 2016 FDA approves Epclusa for treatment of chronic Hepatitis C virus infection. First regimen to treat all six major HCV genotypes. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm508915.htm
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 Koneru A, Nelson N, Hariri S, et al. Increased Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Detection in Women of Childbearing Age and Potential Risk for Vertical Transmission - United States and Kentucky, 2011-2014 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2016;65:705-710 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6528a2.htm
- ↑ Carrozzo M, Scally K. Oral manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2014 Jun 28;20(24):7534-43. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24976694 Free PMC Article
- ↑ Chou R, Wasson N. Blood tests to diagnose fibrosis or cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Jun 4;158(11):807-20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23732714
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 FDA Drug Safety Communication: Oct 4, 2016 FDA warns about the risk of hepatitis B reactivating in some patients treated with direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm522932.htm
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 Su F et al. The association between race/ethnicity and the effectiveness of direct antiviral agents for hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2016 Oct 24; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27775854
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 81.4 Falade-Nwulia O,Suarez-Cuervo C, Nelson DR et al Oral Direct-Acting Agent Therapy for Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Systematic Review. Ann Intern Med. 2017. March 21. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28319996 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2612232/oral-direct-acting-agent-therapy-hepatitis-c-virus-infection-systematic
Hoofnagle JH, Sherke AH Hepatitis C: Down but Not Out. Ann Intern Med. 2017. March 21. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28319998 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2612232/oral-direct-acting-agent-therapy-hepatitis-c-virus-infection-systematic - ↑ 82.0 82.1 Bersoff-Matcha SJ et al. Hepatitis B virus reactivation associated with direct-acting antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis C virus: A review of cases reported to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration adverse event reporting system. Ann Intern Med 2017 Apr 25; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28437794
Graham CS. Making do with what we have. Ann Intern Med 2017 Apr 25 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28437798 - ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 83.3 Ly KN, Jiles RB, Teshale EH et al Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Reproductive-Aged Women and Children in the United States, 2006 to 2014. Ann Intern Med. 2017. May 9. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28492929 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2625387/hepatitis-c-virus-infection-among-reproductive-aged-women-children-united
DeMaria Jr, AD Hearing From the Silent Epidemic Ann Intern Med. 2017. May 9. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28492930 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2625388/hearing-from-silent-epidemic - ↑ 84.0 84.1 Bourliere M, Gordon SC, Flamm SL et al Sofosbuvir, Velpatasvir, and Voxilaprevir for Previously Treated HCV Infection. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:2134-2146. June 1, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28564569 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1613512
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 FDA News Release. July 18, 2017 FDA approves Vosevi for Hepatitis C https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm567467.htm
- ↑ Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) Recommendations for Prevention and Control of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection and HCV-Related Chronic Disease http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hcv/management.htm
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Kattakuzhy S, Gross C, Emmanuel B et al Expansion of Treatment for Hepatitis C Virus Infection by Task Shifting to Community-Based Nonspecialist Providers: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial. Ann Intern Med. Aug 8, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28785771 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2647669/expansion-treatment-hepatitis-c-virus-infection-task-shifting-community-based
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Grebely J, Dalgard O, Conway B et al Sofosbuvir and velpatasvir for hepatitis C virus infection in people with recent injection drug use (SIMPLIFY): an open- label, single-arm, phase 4, multicentre trial. Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. Jan 5, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29310928 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253(17)30404-1/fulltext
Rosenthal ES, Kattakuzhy S, Kottilil S Time to end treatment restrictions for people with hepatitis C who inject drugs. Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. Jan 5, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29310927 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253(18)30001-3/fulltext - ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Mucke MM, Backus LI, Mucke VT et al Hepatitis B virus reactivation during direct-acting antiviral therapy for hepatitis C: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. Jan 19, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29371017 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253(18)30002-5/fulltext
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 Marcus JL, Hurley LB, Chamberland S, et al. No difference in effectiveness of 8 vs 12 weeks of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for treatment of hepatitis C in black patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018 Mar 10; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29535057 <Internet> http://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565(18)30255-6/pdf
- ↑ 91.0 91.1 Susman E Hepatitis C Symptoms Can Persist After Cure. Cryoglobulins observed 2 years after sustained virologic response. MedPage Today. April 13, 2018 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/easl/72330
Bonacci M, et al Long-term immunological and clinical impact of HCV eradication with direct acting antivirals in patients with HCV-associated cryoglobulinemia vasculitis. European Association for Study of the Liver (EASL) 2018; Abstract FRI-368. - ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Shah H, Bilodeau M, Burak KW et al The management of chronic hepatitis C: 2018 guideline update from the Canadian Association for the Study of the Liver. CMAJ June 04, 2018 190 (22) E677-E687 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29866893 <Internet> http://www.cmaj.ca/content/190/22/E677
Crismale JF, Ahmad J. Expanding treatment for hepatitis C in Canada CMAJ June 04, 2018 190 (22) E667-E668 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29866891 <Internet> http://www.cmaj.ca/content/190/22/E667 - ↑ 93.0 93.1 Carrat F, Fontaine H, Dorival C et al Clinical outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis C after direct- acting antiviral treatment: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Feb 11, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30765123 https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)32111-1/fulltext
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 Simon TG, Duberg AS, Aleman S et al Lipophilic Statins and Risk for Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Death in Patients With Chronic Viral Hepatitis: Results From a Nationwide Swedish Population. Ann Intern Med. 2019 Aug 20. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31426090 https://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2748619/lipophilic-statins-risk-hepatocellular-carcinoma-death-patients-chronic-viral-hepatitis
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 American Society for Clinical Pathology Thirty Things Physicians and Patients Should Question Released September 4, 2019 (26-30) http://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-society-for-clinical-pathology/
- ↑ Gordon CE, Berenguer MC, Doss W et al. Prevention, diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in chronic kidney disease: Synopsis of the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes 2018 clinical practice guideline. Ann Intern Med 2019 Oct 1; 171:496. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31546256
- ↑ Ryerson AB, Schillie S, Barker LK, Kupronis BA, Wester C. Vital Signs: Newly Reported Acute and Chronic Hepatitis C Cases - United States, 2009-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020;69:399-404 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6914a2.htm
- ↑ 98.0 98.1 Henderson DK et al. Management of healthcare personnel living with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or human immunodeficiency virus in US healthcare institutions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020 Oct 14 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33050959 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/infection-control-and-hospital-epidemiology/article/management-of-healthcare-personnel-living-with-hepatitis-b-hepatitis-c-or-human-immunodeficiency-virus-in-us-healthcare-institutions/71C331662FBEDDF7F62369E22A22E4F0
- ↑ 99.0 99.1 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 11th edition (GRS11) Harper GM, Lyons WL, Potter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2022
- ↑ 100.0 100.1 Ogawa E et al. Association of direct-acting antiviral therapy with liver and nonliver complications and long-term mortality in patients with chronic hepatitis C. JAMA Intern Med 2022 Dec 12; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36508196 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2799370
- ↑ 101.0 101.1 101.2 101.3 101.4 NEJM Knowledge+ Gastroenterology
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 Bhattacharya D et al. Hepatitis C guidance 2023 update: AASLD-IDSA recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2023 May 25; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37229695 https://academic.oup.com/cid/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cid/ciad319/7179952
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Hamill V et al. Mortality rates among patients successfully treated for hepatitis C in the era of interferon-free antivirals: Population based cohort study. BMJ 2023 Aug 2; 382:e074001. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37532284 PMCID: PMC10394680 Free PMC article https://www.bmj.com/content/382/bmj-2022-074001
- ↑ American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases HCV Guidance: Recommendatins for Testing, Managing and Treatment of Hepatitis C https://www.hcvguidelines.org/
- ↑ 105.0 105.1 Han DH Two Hepatitis C Virus Infection Treatments to Be Discontinued Medical Professionals Reference (MPR) May 24, 2018 https://www.empr.com/home/news/two-hepatitis-c-virus-infection-treatments-to-be-discontinued/