malignant neoplasm (cancer)
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Introduction
Cancer is a generic term generally used in reference to malignant neoplasms. See neoplasm.
Classification
- genetic classification of malignant neoplasms may better estimate prognosis & facilitate treatment[12]
Etiology
risk factors
- risk of cancer in different tissues is correlates (0.81) with the total number of stem cell divisions[26]
- 2/3 of cancers due to bad luck[26]
- smoking & other tobacco use causes about 30% of all cancer-related deaths in the USA
- smoking in association with asbestos exposure increases risk of lung cancer & mesothelioma
- radiation therapy is associated with lifelong risk of cancers originating in the irradiated field
- alcoholic beverage
- although not carcinogenic, associated with risk of cancer in the upper respiratory tract as well as hepatocellular carcinoma in the setting of cirrhosis
- responsible for about 3.5% of all cancer deaths in the U.S. in 2009[10]
- infectious agents may be associated with cancer
- genetic predisposition
- defects in tumor suppressor
- defects promoting autonomous traverse of the cell-cycle
- both early-onset & late-onset cancer in a parent is associated with excess risk for the same cancer in offspring[8]
- taller women may be at greater risk for many cancers
- includes colorectal cancer, breast cancer, melanoma
- lung cancer is not included[15]
- work stress is not a risk factor[11]
- 40% of cancer case & ~50% if cancer deaths among U.S. adults >= 30 years in 2019 were associated with modifiable risk factors[47]
- smoking (#1), drinking, poor diet, failure to receive vaccination(s)[47]
- excess body weight (#2)[47]
Epidemiology
- most common cancers* in men (all ages)[42]
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| prostate cancer | 29% |
| lung cancer | 12% |
| colorectal cancer | 8% |
| bladder cancer | 6% |
| cutaneous melanoma | 6% |
| kidney cancer, ureteral cancer | 5% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 4% |
| oropharyngeal cancer, laryngeal cancer | 4% |
| leukemia | 4% |
| pancreatic cancer | 3% |
- most common cancers* in women (all ages)[42]
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| breast cancer | 40% |
| lung cancer | 17% |
| colorectal cancer | 14% |
| uterine cancer* | 7% |
| cutaneous melanoma | 4% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 4% |
| thyroid cancer | 3% |
| pancreatic cancer | 3% |
| kidney cancer, ureteral cancer | 3% |
| leukemia | 3% |
* cervical cancer & endometrial cancer
- most common tumors by < 15 years of age
- leukemia
- primary CNS neoplasm
- endocrine neoplasm
- male: lymphoma; female: bone cancer
- sarcoma
- most common tumors by 15-34 years of age
- male: leukemia; female: breast cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: leukemia
- male: primary CNS neoplasm; female: cervical cancer
- male: skin cancer; female: primary CNS neoplasm
- male: Hodgkin's disease; female: lymphoma
- most common tumors by 35-54 years of age
- male: lung cancer; female: breast cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: lung cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: colorectal cancer
- male: primary CNS neoplasm; female: ovarian cancer
- male: pancreatic cancer; female: cervical cancer
- most common tumors by 55-74 years of age
- lung cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: breast cancer
- male: prostate cancer; female: colorectal cancer
- male: pancreatic cancer; female: ovarian cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: pancreatic cancer
- most common tumors by > 75 years of age
- lung cancer
- male: prostatic cancer; female: colorectal cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: breast cancer
- pancreatic cancer
- male: leukemia; female: ovarian cancer
- mortality from malignant neoplasms in men, 2023[42]
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| lung cancer | 21% |
| prostate cancer | 11% |
| colorectal cancer | 9% |
| pancreatic cancer | 8% |
| liver cancer & biliary cancer | 6% |
| leukemia | 4% |
| esophageal cancer | 4% |
| bladder cancer | 4% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 4% |
| brain cancer & other nervous system cancers | 3% |
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| lung cancer | 21% |
| breast cancer | 15% |
| colorectal cancer | 8% |
| pancreatic cancer | 8% |
| ovarian cancer | 5% |
| uterine cancer* | 5% |
| liver cancer & biliary cancer | 4% |
| leukemia | 3% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 3% |
| brain cancer & other nervous system cancers | 3% |
* cervical cancer & endometrial cancer
- cancer mortality
- 33% reduction in cancer mortality 1991-2020[42]
- declined by 20% between 1980-2014[32] & 1991-2010[17] from 240 to 192 deaths per 100,000
- substantial geographic variability within in U.S.
- Union County, Florida with highest cancer mortality in 2014, at 503 per 100,000[32]
- testicular cancer, pancreatic cancer & colorectal cancer contributory[32]
- overall cancer incidence was lower in nonmetropolitan areas than metropolitan areas 2006-2015[33]
- incident cases of lung, colorectal, & cervical cancer higher in nonmetropolitan areas
- mortality higher for these cancers plus prostate cancer in nonmetropolitan areas[33]
- incidence of invasive cancer: 451 per 100,000 population
- incidence higher in men than women
- mortality similar among men & women[27]
- older adults & black Americans of all ages are likely to develop cancer & present with more advanced disease[18][27]
- aggressiveness of malignancy shows variable association with age[18]
- ethnic differences in cancer rates & mortality[23]
- incidence higher in men than women
- populations living in extremely cold or high-altitude nvironments have genes that increase survival but predispose individuals to cancer later in life, especially lung cancer, breast cancer, & colorectal cancer[36]
- in the Chinese community, cancer has traditionally been the 'unspeakable' diagnosis from which elders have been shielded[18][22]
- incidence of 17 of 34 cancers have increased in younger cohorts (born after 1990), vs older cohort including pancreatic cancer & kidney cancer[48]
* leukemias & lymphomas together rank under bladder cancer in men & endometrial cancer in women (about 6% of all cancers)
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| breast cancer | 40% |
| lung cancer | 17% |
| colorectal cancer | 14% |
| uterine cancer* | 7% |
| cutaneous melanoma | 4% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 4% |
| thyroid cancer | 3% |
| pancreatic cancer | 3% |
| kidney cancer, ureteral cancer | 3% |
| leukemia | 3% |
* cervical cancer & endometrial cancer
- most common tumors by < 15 years of age
- leukemia
- primary CNS neoplasm
- endocrine neoplasm
- male: lymphoma; female: bone cancer
- sarcoma
- most common tumors by 15-34 years of age
- male: leukemia; female: breast cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: leukemia
- male: primary CNS neoplasm; female: cervical cancer
- male: skin cancer; female: primary CNS neoplasm
- male: Hodgkin's disease; female: lymphoma
- most common tumors by 35-54 years of age
- male: lung cancer; female: breast cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: lung cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: colorectal cancer
- male: primary CNS neoplasm; female: ovarian cancer
- male: pancreatic cancer; female: cervical cancer
- most common tumors by 55-74 years of age
- lung cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: breast cancer
- male: prostate cancer; female: colorectal cancer
- male: pancreatic cancer; female: ovarian cancer
- male: lymphoma; female: pancreatic cancer
- most common tumors by > 75 years of age
- lung cancer
- male: prostatic cancer; female: colorectal cancer
- male: colorectal cancer; female: breast cancer
- pancreatic cancer
- male: leukemia; female: ovarian cancer
- mortality from malignant neoplasms in men, 2023[42]
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| lung cancer | 21% |
| prostate cancer | 11% |
| colorectal cancer | 9% |
| pancreatic cancer | 8% |
| liver cancer & biliary cancer | 6% |
| leukemia | 4% |
| esophageal cancer | 4% |
| bladder cancer | 4% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 4% |
| brain cancer & other nervous system cancers | 3% |
| cancer | % |
|---|---|
| lung cancer | 21% |
| breast cancer | 15% |
| colorectal cancer | 8% |
| pancreatic cancer | 8% |
| ovarian cancer | 5% |
| uterine cancer* | 5% |
| liver cancer & biliary cancer | 4% |
| leukemia | 3% |
| non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 3% |
| brain cancer & other nervous system cancers | 3% |
* cervical cancer & endometrial cancer
- cancer mortality
- 33% reduction in cancer mortality 1991-2020[42]
- declined by 20% between 1980-2014[32] & 1991-2010[17] from 240 to 192 deaths per 100,000
- substantial geographic variability within in U.S.
- Union County, Florida with highest cancer mortality in 2014, at 503 per 100,000[32]
- testicular cancer, pancreatic cancer & colorectal cancer contributory[32]
- overall cancer incidence was lower in nonmetropolitan areas than metropolitan areas 2006-2015[33]
- incident cases of lung, colorectal, & cervical cancer higher in nonmetropolitan areas
- mortality higher for these cancers plus prostate cancer in nonmetropolitan areas[33]
- incidence of invasive cancer: 451 per 100,000 population
- incidence higher in men than women
- mortality similar among men & women[27]
- older adults & black Americans of all ages are likely to develop cancer & present with more advanced disease[18][27]
- aggressiveness of malignancy shows variable association with age[18]
- ethnic differences in cancer rates & mortality[23]
- incidence higher in men than women
- populations living in extremely cold or high-altitude nvironments have genes that increase survival but predispose individuals to cancer later in life, especially lung cancer, breast cancer, & colorectal cancer[36]
- in the Chinese community, cancer has traditionally been the 'unspeakable' diagnosis from which elders have been shielded[18][22]
- incidence of 17 of 34 cancers have increased in younger cohorts (born after 1990), vs older cohort including pancreatic cancer & kidney cancer[48]
* leukemias & lymphomas together rank under bladder cancer in men & endometrial cancer in women (about 6% of all cancers)
Pathology
- malignant neoplasms apparently originate from stem cells[2][7]
- stem cell mutations drive neoplasm growth (driver mutations)
- present in all cells of the primary cancer
- almost universally present in primary cancers*
* ependymomas may be entirely epigenetic
Genetics
- c-Myc is an oncogenic transcription factor frequently dysregulated in human cancer[4]
Clinical manifestations
- local
- pain
- swelling
- regional & distant
- compression of nerves
- weakening or breach of structural integrity
- bone
- blood vessels
- bowel
- paraneoplastic syndromes
- metabolic disorders
- ectopic hormone production
- neuropathy & CNS abnormalities
- dermatologic conditions
- hematologic abnormalities
- immunosuppression
- autoimmunity
- psychosocial effects
- anxiety
- depression
- loss of autonomy
- fear of death & dying
- fear of pain & altered body image
- alienation
- symptoms that increase the likelihood of cancer[3]
Laboratory
Complications
- in the 1st week after a cancer diagnosis
- increased risk of suicide (HR=10)
- increased risk of death from cardiovascular event (HR=5)[6]
- increased risk for myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke 6 months after cancer diagnosis (4.7% vs 2.2%)[34]
- greater manifestations of cognitive symptoms* associated with greater severity of symptoms from cancer & treatment[49]
- fatigue & depression associated with moderate-severe cognitive symptoms*[49]
* cognitive symptons include: memory impairment, inattention, impaired concentration, diminished processing speed, executive dysfunction
- disease interaction(s) of autoimmune disease with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with aging
- disease interaction(s) of COVID-19 with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with mental health
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with anemia
- disease interaction(s) of heart failure with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of depression with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus with cancer
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with high BMI
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with gyncecologic disease
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with cognitive impairment
- disease interaction(s) of cancer with Alzheimer's disease
Management
- geriatric assessment prior to palliative care consult in elderly[45]
- palliative care consult for patients with newly diagnosed advanced cancer[9][31][41]
- surgical resection is the primary treatment modality for most malignancies
- cure for nearly all solid tumors is usually related to whether of not the tumor can be completely resected[9]
- if cure is unlikely, a palliative approach to prolong life & improve the quality of life is indicated[9][41]
- fertility options should be offered befor cancer treatment for patients who wish future child-bearing[9]
- an era of personalized cancer treatment based upon genomics. proteomics & tumor microenvironments is emerging[9]
- newer chemotherapeutic agents include
- growth factor inhibitors
- receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors
- aromatase inhibitors
- see specific cancer
- see cancer survivor
- treatment of symptoms[29][30] including
*
- treat depression
- collaborative care more effective for treating depression than usual care[24]
- attributes of high-value oncology practices[35]
- conservative approach to diagnostic testing;
- patient engagement & shared decision making
- early discussion with patients about the limitations & goals of cancer care
- early involvement & normalization of palliative care
- allowing staff to practice at the highest level of their license & competence
- affiliation of smaller units of care delivery with a larger healthcare system[35]
- eliminating unnecessary emergency department visits[38]
- identify patients at high risk for unplanned acute care
- enhance access & care coordination among healthcare providers
- standardize clinical pathways for symptom management
- develop alternative means for urgent cancer care
- use early palliative care[38]
- exercise should be prescribed to all cancer patients per Clinical Oncology Society of Australia (COSA)[39]
*
- vaccinations
- adults with solid & hematologic cancers traveling to an area of risk should follow the CDC standard recommendations for the destination
Notes
- overdiagnosis is common & occurs more freauently with screening for cancer[16]
- overdiagnosis results in overtreatment
- cost of cancer treatment have increased significantly[9]
More general terms
More specific terms
- cancer during pregnancy
- cancer in the elderly
- cancer of infectious origin
- carcinoma
- CNS malignancy
- eye cancer; intraocular cancer
- head & neck cancer (HNC)
- malignancy with infectious etiology
- malignant carcinoid
- malignant endocrine neoplasm
- malignant histiocytosis; true histiocytic lymphoma; reticulosarcoma; histiocytic medullary reticulosis
- malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, & breast
- malignant neoplasm of digestive organs & peritoneum
- malignant neoplasm of lymphatic & hematopoietic tissue
- Malignant Neoplasm of Respiratory & Intrathoracic Organs
- malignant parotid gland neoplasm
- malignant salivary gland neoplasm
- metastatic neoplasm (metastatic cancer)
- obesity-related cancer
- sarcoma
- second cancer (subsequent cancer among cancer survivors)
- secondary malignant neoplasm
- urogenital malignancy (urogenital cancer)
Additional terms
- aberrantly expressed proteins/genes in cancer
- cancer alternative therapy
- cancer complication
- cancer pain
- cancer survivor
- chemotherapy
- metastasis
- prevention of cancer
- screening for cancer
- staging of cancer
References
- ↑ Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th ed. Fauci et al (eds), McGraw-Hill Inc. NY, 1998, pg 360
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Journal Watch 25(1):3, 2005 Singh SK, Hawkins C, Clarke ID, Squire JA, Bayani J, Hide T, Henkelman RM, Cusimano MD, Dirks PB. Identification of human brain tumour initiating cells. Nature. 2004 Nov 18;432(7015):396-401. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15549107
Houghton J, Stoicov C, Nomura S, Rogers AB, Carlson J, Li H, Cai X, Fox JG, Goldenring JR, Wang TC. Gastric cancer originating from bone marrow-derived cells. Science. 2004 Nov 26;306(5701):1568-71. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15567866 - ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jones R, Latinovic R, Charlton J, Gulliford MC. Alarm symptoms in early diagnosis of cancer in primary care: cohort study using General Practice Research Database. BMJ. 2007 May 19;334(7602):1040. Epub 2007 May 10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17493982
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kessler JD et al. A SUMOylation-dependent transcriptional subprogram is required for Myc-driven tumorigenesis. Science 2012 Jan 20; 335:348. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22157079
- ↑ Journal Watch, Massachusetts Medical Society, March 12, 2012 Siegel R et al. Cancer Statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin 2012 Jan/Feb; 62:10. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22237781
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Physician's First Watch for April 5, 2012 Massachesetts Medical Society
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Chen J et al. A restricted cell population propagates glioblastoma growth after chemotherapy. Nature 2012 Aug 23; 488:522 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22854781
Driessens G et al. Defining the mode of tumour growth by clonal analysis. Nature 2012 Aug 23; 488:527 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22854777
Gilbertson RJ and Graham TA. Cancer: Resolving the stem-cell debate. Nature 2012 Aug 23; 488:462 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22919708 - ↑ 8.0 8.1 Kharazmi E et al. Familial risk of early and late onset cancer: Nationwide prospective cohort study. BMJ 2012 Dec 20; 345:e8076. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23257063
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 16, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2012, 2018, 2021.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Nelson DE et al Alcohol-Attributable Cancer Deaths and Years of Potential Life Lost in the United States American Journal of Public Health. Feb 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23409916 <Internet> http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301199
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Heikkila K et al. Work stress and risk of cancer: Meta-analysis of 5700 incident cancer events in 116 000 European men and women. BMJ 2013 Feb 7; 346:f165 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23393080
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 The Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network Genomic and Epigenomic Landscapes of Adult De Novo Acute Myeloid Leukemia. N Engl J Med May 1, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23634996 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1301689
Steensma DP The Beginning of the End of the Beginning in Cancer Genomics. N Engl J Med May 1, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23634995 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1303816
The Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network Integrated genomic characterization of endometrial carcinoma. Nature 497, 67-73 (02 May 2013) <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23636398 <Internet> http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v497/n7447/full/nature12113.html - ↑ Jemal A, Siegel R, Xu J, Ward E Cancer statistics, 2010. CA Cancer J Clin. 2010 Sep-Oct;60(5):277-300. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20610543
- ↑ decrecated reference
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kobat GC et al Adult Stature and Risk of Cancer at Different Anatomic Sites in a Cohort of Postmenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. July 25, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23887996 <Internet> http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/early/2013/07/25/1055-9965.EPI-13-0305.abstract
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Esserman LJ et al Overdiagnosis and Overtreatment in Cancer. An Opportunity for Improvement. JAMA. July 29. 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23896967 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1722196
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Cancer Facts and Figures 2013 http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-036845.pdf
Siegel R et al Cancer statistics, 2014 CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. Jan 7, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24399786 <Internet> http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21208/full - ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
- ↑ Pal SK1, Katheria V, Hurria A. Evaluating the older patient with cancer: understanding frailty and the geriatric assessment. CA Cancer J Clin. 2010 Mar-Apr;60(2):120-32 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20173172
- ↑ Pal SK, Hurria A. Impact of age, sex, and comorbidity on cancer therapy and disease progression. J Clin Oncol. 2010 Sep 10;28(26):4086-93. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20644100
- ↑ Rodin MB, Mohile SG. A practical approach to geriatric assessment in oncology. J Clin Oncol. 2007 May 10;25(14):1936-44 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17488994
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Huang X, Butow P, Meiser B, Goldstein D Attitudes and information needs of Chinese migrant cancer patients and their relatives. Aust N Z J Med. 1999 Apr;29(2):207-13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10342019
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 McCracken M, Olsen M, Chen MS Jr et al Cancer incidence, mortality, and associated risk factors among Asian Americans of Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese ethnicities. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007 Jul-Aug;57(4):190-205. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17626117
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Walker J et al Prevalence, associations, and adequacy of treatment of major depression in patients with cancer: a cross-sectional analysis of routinely collected clinical data. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014 Oct;1(5):343-50 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26360998 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366%2814%2970313-X/abstract
Sharpe M et al Integrated collaborative care for comorbid major depression in patients with cancer (SMaRT Oncology-2): a multicentre randomised controlled effectiveness trial. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 28 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25175478 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961231-9/abstract
Walker J et al Integrated collaborative care for major depression comorbid with a poor prognosis cancer (SMaRT Oncology-3): a multicentre randomised controlled trial in patients with lung cancer. The Lancet Oncology, Early Online Publication, 28 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25175097 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470-2045%2814%2970343-2/abstract - ↑ 25.0 25.1 Obermeyer Z et al Association Between the Medicare Hospice Benefit and Health Care Utilization and Costs for Patients With Poor-Prognosis Cancer. JAMA. 2014;312(18):1888-1896. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25387186 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1930818
Teno JM, Gozalo PL Quality and Costs of End-of-Life CareThe Need for Transparency and Accountability. JAMA. 2014;312(18):1868-1869 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25387185 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1930801 - ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Tomasetti C, Vogelstein B Variation in cancer risk among tissues can be explained by the number of stem cell divisions. Science 2 January 2015: Vol. 347 no. 6217 pp. 78-81 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25554788 <Internet> http://www.sciencemag.org/content/347/6217/78.abstract
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Henley JS, Singh SD, King J et al Invasive Cancer Incidence and Survival - United States, 2011 MMWR Weekly. March 13, 2015 / 64(09);237-242 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6409a1.htm
- ↑ Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013 Jan;63(1):11-30. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23335087
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Shoemaker LK, Estfan B, Induru R, Walsh TD Symptom management: an important part of cancer care. Cleve Clin J Med. 2011 Jan;78(1):25-34. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21199904 Free Article
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 von Gunten CF, Gafford E. Treatment of non-pain-related symptoms. Cancer J. 2013 Sep-Oct;19(5):397-404. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24051612 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Otsuka M, Koyama A, Matsuoka H Early palliative intervention for patients with advanced cancer. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2013 Aug;43(8):788-94. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23737605 Free Article
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 32.8 Mokdad AH, Dwyer-Lindgren L, Fitzmaurice C et al Trends and Patterns of Disparities in Cancer Mortality Among US Counties, 1980-2014. JAMA. 2017;317(4):388-406 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28118455 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2598772
Wheeler SB, Basch E Translating Cancer Surveillance Data Into Effective Public Health Interventions. JAMA. 2017;317(4):365-367. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28118434 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2598750 - ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Henley SJ, Anderson RN, Thomas CC et al Invasive Cancer Incidence, 2004-2013, and Deaths 2006-2015, in Nonmetropolitan and Metropolitan Counties - United States. MMWR Surveill Summ 2017;66(No. SS-14):1-13 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/ss/ss6614a1.htm
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Navi BB, Reiner AS, Kamel H et al. Risk of arterial thromboembolism in patients with cancer. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017 Aug 22; 70:926. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28818202 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717379408
Yeh ETH, Chang HM. Cancer and clot: Between a rock and a hard place. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017 Aug 22; 70:939. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28818203 <Internet> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717387867 - ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Nelson R. High-Value Cancer Care Keeps Costs Down? Yes, It's Possible! Medscape - Nov 16, 2017. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/888751
Blayney DW, Simon MK, Podtschaske P et al Critical Lessons From High-Value Oncology Practices. JAMA Oncol. Published online November 16, 2017 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29145584 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/article-abstract/2663285
Sox HC, Basch EM, Berwick D Strategies to Achieve High-Value Oncology Care - A Beginning. JAMA Oncol. Published online November 16, 2017 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29145560 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/article-abstract/2663283 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Jenkins K Living in Very Cold Climate and Increased Cancer Risk. Medscape - Dec 05, 2017 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/889635
- ↑ Feinberg AP The Key Role of Epigenetics in Human Disease Prevention and Mitigation. N Engl J Med 2018; 378:1323-1334. April 5, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29617578 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1402513
Mack SC, Witt H, Piro RM, Epigenomic alterations define lethal CIMP-positive ependymomas of infancy. Nature. 2014 Feb 27;506(7489):445-50. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24553142 Free PMC Article - ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Nelson R Five Steps to Keep Patients With Cancer Out of ED. Medscape - Apr 26, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/895737
Handley NR, Schuchter LM, Bekelman JE Best Practices for Reducing Unplanned Acute Care for Patients With Cancer. Journal of Oncology Practices. April 2018 http://ascopubs.org/doi/abs/10.1200/JOP.17.00081?journalCode=jop - ↑ 39.0 39.1 Mulcahy N Prescribe Exercise to All Cancer Patients, Says New Guideline. Medscape - May 16, 2018. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/896686
Cormie P, Atkinson M, Bucci L et al. Clinical Oncology Society of Australia position statement on exercise in cancer care. Med J Aust. May 7, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29719196 https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2018/209/6/clinical-oncology-society-australia-position-statement-exercise-cancer-care - ↑ Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A Cancer statistics, 2020 CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicans. Jan 8, 2020 https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.3322/caac.21590
American Cancer Society News Release. Jan 8, 2020 Facts & Figures 2020 Reports Largest One-year Drop in Cancer Mortality. https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/facts-and-figures-2020.html - ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Bakitas M, Lyons KD, Hegel MT et al Effects of a palliative care intervention on clinical outcomes in patients with advanced cancer: the Project ENABLE II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009 Aug 19;302(7):741-9 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19690306
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 42.6 42.7 42.8 Siegel RL, Miller KD, Wagle NS, MHA, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2023 CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. Jan 12, 2023 https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21763
- ↑ Cancer Facts and Statistics http://www.cancer.org/statistics
- ↑ National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Clinical Guidelines https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Puts MT, Santos B, Hardt J, An update on a systematic review of the use of geriatric assessment for older adults in oncology. Ann Oncol. 2014 Feb;25(2):307-15. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24256847 Free article. Review.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Brooks M ASCO Releases Vaccination Guidelines for Adults With Cancer MDedge/Internal Medicine. March 28, 2024 https://www.mdedge.com/internalmedicine/article/268479/preventive-care/asco-releases-vaccination-guidelines-adults-cancer
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 Islami R, Marlow EC, Thomson B et al Proportion and number of cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable risk factors in the United States, 2019. CA Cancer J Clin. 2024 Jul 11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38990124 Free article. https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.3322/caac.21858
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Sung H, Chng C, Bandi P et al Differences in cancer rates among adults born between 1920 and 1990 in the USA: an analysis of population-based cancer registry data. Lancet Public Health. 2024 August PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39095135 Free article https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(24)00156-7/fulltext
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Mayo SJ, Edelstein K, Atenafu EG, Ajaj R, Li M, Bernstein LJ. Cognitive Symptoms Across Diverse Cancers. JAMA Netw Open. 2024 Aug 1;7(8):e2430833. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39196555 PMCID: PMC11358862 Free PMC article. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822904
- ↑ Naddaf M Ultra-precise 3D maps of cancer cells unlock secrets of how tumours grow. Charting the evolution of cancer at single-cell resolution could open up avenues for early diagnosis and treatment. Nature News. 2024. Oct 30. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-03539-3
Human Tumor Atlas Network A collection of research articles, methods and datasets from a collaborative initative tracking human tumor evolution in space and time. Nature. 2024 https://www.nature.com/immersive/d42859-024-00059-y/index.html
Nature Portfolio The Human Tumor Atlas Network (HTAN): exploring tumor evolution in time and space. Nature. 2024. Oct 30 https://www.nature.com/collections/fihchcjehc