myocardial infarction (MI); heart attack
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Introduction
Also see STEMI, NSTEMI & acute coronary syndrome.
Classification
Killip classification
- class 1: no pulmonary congestion
- class 2: mild pulmonary congestion or isolated S3
- class 3: pulmonary edema
- class 4: hypotension & evidence of shock
clinical classification
- type 1: coronary thrombosis
- type 2: myocardial ischemia due to increased oxygen demand or decreased oxygen supply
- older, more often female, more comorbidities & lower LVEF than type 1
- higher mortality than type 1 (49% vs 26%)[53]
- type 3: suspected MI-related death
- cardiac death in a setting suggestive of myocardial ischemia without definitive biomarker evidence
- type 4A: PCI-related MI type 4B: cardiac stent thrombosis
- type 5: CABG-related MI
Etiology
- occlusion of one or more of the coronary arteries
- if not reversed within 30 minutes, myocardial ischemia generally results in myocardial infarction
- without collaterals 90% of the supplied myocardium is infarcted within 3 hours of occlusion
- thrombus overlying or adjacent to ruptured atherosclerotic plaque
- advanced lesions > 85% stenosis are unlikely to be sites of occlusion giving rise to MI because of collateral circulation which develops in slowly progressive lesions
- lesions with about 50% stenosis are most likely sites for occlusive thrombi* because of:
- significant risk for plaque rupture
- lack of significant collateral circulation
- increased sympathetic tone increases risk
- circadian pattern
- early morning & early evening peaks
- emotional stress stimulates sympathetic activity & increases risk of MI[71] (RR=2.44)
- emotional stress in combination with intense exercise further increases risk of MI[71] (RR=3.05)
- bereavement increases risk of MI[37]
- divorce in women increases risk of MI[65]
- holidays (Christmas & New Year) increase risk
- sympathomimetics including cocaine use stimulate sympathetic activity & increase risk of MI
- acute respiratory tract infections transiently increase risk[23][81][88]
- pneumonia, acute bronchitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus confer 3-6 fold increased risk[88]
- in young patients, consider Kawasaki disease
- weather conditions associated with small increased risk
- temperature below freezing strongest weather risk[86]
- low atmospheric air pressure, high wind speed, shorter daylight
- coronary vasoconstriction is the most probable mechanism[86]
- also see etiology of MI without coronary artery disease
- also see cardiac risk factors
* the majority of MIs occur in patients with non-obstructive coronary artery disease[56]
Pathology
- mortality from MI is greatest within the 1st 2 hours
- earliest histologic evidence of myocardial infarction occurs after 8-12 hours
- after myocardial infarction, the epicardium stops producing FSTL1[66]
Genetics
- ALOX5AP haplotypes hapA & hapB are associated with susceptibility to myocardial infarction
- other implicated genes: PALLD
Clinical manifestations
- chest pain, resembling angina pectoris*
- more severe & longer in duration than angina
- typically > 20 minutes to several hours in duration
- angina is typically < 10 minutes in duration
- a dull pain may persist for days after severe pain subsides
- association with exertion
- radiation to one or both arms*
- not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin
- chest pain may be absent:
- post-operative
- elderly
- diabetes
- hypertension
- more severe & longer in duration than angina
- dyspnea
- nausea/vomiting
- diaphoresis
- palpitations
- exacerbation of CHF/cardiogenic pulmonary edema
- confusion
- hypotension* may indicate cardiogenic shock
- cardiogenic shock with JVD, but without pulmonary congestion suggests RCA occlusion (inferior wall & right heart)
- jugular venous distension (JVD) indicates right ventricular failure; clear lungs, bradycardia, hypotension suggests right ventricular infarction
- S3* suggests heart failure
- S4 indicates decreased left ventricular compliance
- new systolic murmur
- pericardial friction rub in 15% of cases
- signs/symptoms may be different in women
* chest pain with radiation to both arms, S3 & hypotension are the most predictive features of myocardial infarction
# association of chest pain with exertion is a stronger indicator of AMI than association with dyspnea, pressure, or stress[57]
Diagnostic criteria
- serum tropinin I or serum troponin T > 99% of a normal reference population, plus one or more of[43]
- symptoms of ischemia
- new significant ST sement or T wave changes or left bundle branch block
- pathologic Q waves on ECG
- new loss of viable myocardium or regional wall motion abnormality, as observed on imaging
- intracoronary thrombus diagnosed by angiography or autopsy
Laboratory
- markers of myocardial infarction
- creatine kinase MB fraction
- serum CK-MB increases 4-6 hours after MI
- peak levels 12-20 hours
- returns to baseline in 36-48 hours
- serum CK MB index > 5% indicates MI (max value is 20%)
- serum troponin
- serum troponin-I
- upon presentation & 1 hour later[61]
- within 6 hours (performance measure)[80]
- high-sensitivity serum cardiac troponin T
- a single high-sensitivity serum cardiac troponin T + ECG can rule out MI[74]
- serum troponin-I
- serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isozymes
- elevations in serum LDH become detectable in 12 hours
- peak levels in 24-48 hours
- remain elevated for 10-14 days
- LDH1/LDH2 ratio > 1.0 indicates myocardial infarction
- most useful in patients presenting 24 hours after onset of symptoms
- serum aspartate transaminase (serum AST, SGOT)
- serum myoglobin
- non-specific marker
- elevation in serum within 1-3 hours of MI
- creatine kinase MB fraction
- routine labs
- complete blood count
- leukocytosis may accompany myocardial necrosis
- hemoglobin <10 g/dL may be indication for transfusion
- serum electrolytes
- serum glucose
- serum creatinine
- complete blood count
Diagnostic procedures
- electrocardiogram:
- the majority of patients with MI have ECG changes
- ST segment elevation, > 1 mm in 2 contiguous leads
- convex
- peaked or inverted T waves
- prolongation of QTc preceeds ST segment elevation[29]
- ST segment depression
- new Q waves > 40 msec may occur with:
- MI
- prolonged ischemia
- myocarditis
- new or presumed new left bundle branch block
- accelerated idioventricular rhythm common within 1st 24 hours[6]
- coronary angiography with revascularization
- revascularization of all significantly blocked arteries not just culprit arteries involved in MI[55]
Radiology
- chest X-ray to assess for congestive heart failure, pneumothorax
Complications
see complications of myocardial infarction
- mortality from MI is greatest within the 1st 2 hours
- myocardial pump failure
- occurs 2-7 days after MI
- congestive heart failure
- cardiogenic shock
- pulmonary edema
- hepatic congestion from right heart failure
- myocardial rupture
- generally occurs after 3-7 days, but may occur later
- interventricular septum - ventricular septal defect (10%)
- left ventricular free wall (85%)
- left ventricular aneurysm
- rupture of papillary muscle (5%)
- evaluate with emergent echocardiography
- cardiac arrhythmias
- ventricular arrhythmias most lethal
- sustained ventricular arrhythmias early post-infarction are predictive of recurrent arrhythmias & 1-year mortality[107]
- premature ventricular depolarizations
- ventricular tachycardia (VT)
- ventricular fibrillation (VF)
- accelerated idioventricular rhythm (AIVR) common within 1st 24 hours (no treatment generally needed)[6]
- supraventricular arrhythmias
- sinus tachycardia
- paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT)
- atrial fibrillation (AF)
- excess risk of death is highest for AF developing > 30 days after MI[36]
- atrial flutter
- bradyarrhythmias
- sinus bradycardia
- AV block due to right coronary artery occlusion (90%)
- temporary cardiac pacing if indicated
- delay insertion of a permanent pacemaker for several days to determine if heart block is transient or permanent[6]
- coronary reperfusion therapy (PCI)[6]
- ventricular arrhythmias most lethal
- pericarditis
- acute pericarditis
- results from transmural infarction & irritation of the pericardium
- nay occur within a few days of myocardial infarction (2 days[102])
- Dressler's syndrome
- non-acetylated salicylate is treatment of choice; avoid NSAIDs (with anti-platelet activity)
- acute pericarditis
- thromboembolism
- intracardiac thrombus occurs in 40% of patients with anterior wall MI
- systemic thromboembolism occurs in 50% of patients with anterior wall MI
- right ventricular infarction
- occurs in 40% of patients with inferior wall MI
- jugular venous distension
- clear lung fields
- recurrent myocardial infarction[6]
- risk about 10% in the 1st year
- peak incidence within 1st 6 weeks
- 4-6 weeks necessary for myocardium & ruptured coronary plaque to heal
- life time risk of 2nd MI is 50%[11]
- renal disease associated higher risk of death after MI[12]
- small increase in serum creatinine during hospitalization for MI associated with increased risk of ESRD & death[31][38]
- depression increases risk of adverse outcomes[28]
- women treated with fibrinolytic therapy, antiplatelet agents, or anticoagulation have a higher risk of bleeding complications than men[6]
- 30 day rehospitalization 19%; 43% of these related to incident MI [42
- myocardial infarction is associated with faster declines in memory, executive function, & global cognition[98]
- falls in the elderly are common after myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of influenza with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of subclinical hypothyroidism with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of bone fracture with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of atrial fibrillation with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of diabetes mellitus type 2 with myocardial infarction
- disease interaction(s) of HIV1 infection with myocardial infarction
Differential diagnosis
(see chest pain)
Management
- goals of management
- relieve pain
- recognize & treat complications of MI
- minimize the size of the infarction
- serial ECGs, upon presentation & QD during hospitalization
- initial medical therapy
- clopidogrel plus aspirin 81 mg, avoid NSAIDs[35]
- oxygen
- beta blocker
- analgesia: nitrates vs IV fluids (see below), morphine
- target mean arterial blood pressure = 60-100 mm Hg[6]
- beta blockers & nitrates 1st line
- avoid hydralazine[6]
- heparin for 48 hours
- glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor (NSTEMI)[6]
- aspirin 160-325 mg PO immediately (chewed, not EC) & QD
- clopidrogrel may be of benefit (see COMMIT trial)
- aspirin + prasugrel or ticagrelor for 1 year (STEMI)[84]
- oxygen:
- 2-4 liters/min by nasal cannula
- do not continue for more than 3 hours unless hypoxia is present[7]
- similar 1-year mortality & rehospitalization rate vs ambient air unless oxygen saturation < 90%[79][84]
- IV fluids
- right ventricular MI (avoid nitrates)
- posterior wall MI with hypotension
- analgesia
- nitrates
- nitroglycerin
- relieves angina, lowers blood pressure
- may reduce infarct size
- decrease in wall tension
- affects remodelling
- may diminish susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation
- contraindications to IV nitroglycerin
- may reduce mortality in patients with large anterior wall myocardial infarction & congestive heart failure
- nitrates reduce mortality (4-8 deaths/1000) at 2 days when administered within 24 hours of an MI[62]
- no mortality benefit when continued beyond 48 hours
- isosorbide 10-30 mg TID
- nitroglycerin
- morphine for anxiety & discomfort
- nitrates
- beta-blockers
- decrease myocardial oxygen consumption
- decreased heart rate
- decreased LV contractility
- decreased BP
- of no benefit during acute MI
- delayed treatment may be modestly beneficial[62]
- IV beta blockers
- decrease infarct size & mortality
- decrease incidence of ventricular fibrillation
- indicated in patients who present within 4-6 hours after onset of symptoms
- chronic oral cardioselective beta blockers
- atenolol, metoprolol
- used within 3-21 days[6]
- used within 48 hours reduces mortality[70]
- continued use 1 year after MI may not reduce mortality[70]
- progressively decreasing benefit of beta-blocker over time[70]
- may not improve 1 year survival in patients without heart failure or LV systolic dysfunction[76]
- beta-blocker may not benefit revascularized patients without LV systolic dysfunction after MI[104]
- contraindications
- heart rate < 55/min
- systolic blood pressure < 95 torr
- AV block
- obstructive lung disease
- history
- wheezing on examination
- evidence of significant heart failure
- inferior wall MI with high vagal tone
- use diltiazem or verapamil if beta-blocker contraindicated
- specific beta-blockers
- metoprolol (cardioselective)
- atenolol (cardioselective)
- labetalol
- 20-80 mg IV every 10 minutes, up to 300 mg
- useful in patients in state of adrenergic excess, circumvents unopposed alpha activity with beta adrenergic antagonists
- timolol
- esmolol drip
- 250-500 ug/kg bolus
- infusion of 50 ug/kg/min
- useful for patients at risk for complications from beta blockers because of short 1/2 life
- functional decline occurs in 2% of impaired elderly prescribed beta-blockers after MI[72]
- decrease myocardial oxygen consumption
- ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor antagonist (ARB)[17]
- early treatment is beneficial
- initiate therapy when hemodynamically safe (2-3 days post MI; within 24 hours[6]) & continue for at least 6 weeks
- increased long term (42 month) survival
- prevents remodeling of infarcted myocardium
- ramipril, perindopril may be better than lisinopril, enalapril, fosinopril, captopril, or quinapril[20][21]
- sacubitril/valsartan no better than ramapril for MI complicated by left ventricular dysfunction or pulmonary congestion[95]
- long term management of LV dysfunction following MI
- early treatment is beneficial
- calcium channel blockers
- diltiazem or verapamil if beta-blocker contraindicated[3]
- others without benefit & potential for harm
- use of diuretics after acute MI may be associated with increased mortality
- use of chlorthalidone vs HCTZ associated with lower cardiovascular morbidity & mortality[105]
- amiodarone is agent of choice for arrhythmias not controlled by beta blockers
- anticoagulation
- heparin
- warfarin: documented thrombus
- enoxaparin (Levonox, low molecular weight heparin)
- avoid in obesity, renal failure[6]
- PCI (PTCA) more effective than thrombolytic therapy[15][27]
- thrombolytic therapy generally indicated only for STEMI when PCI is not available
- multivessel or distal disease may favor thrombolytic therapy vs PCI
- perform within 90 minutes of 1st medical contact[6]
- survival benefit for up to 12 hours after symptom onset (see PCI)
- PCI improves outcomes with cardiogenic shock[26] (see SHOCK trial)
- transfer to PCI-capable hospital should routinely follow thrombolysis[32]
- atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) 0.025 ug/kg/min for 3 days post reperfusion may improve outcomes[30]
- thrombolysis prior to PCI may worsen outcomes[22]
- complete revascularization may improve outcomes relative to infarct-related artery only revascularization[54]
- complete multivessel revascularization at the time of PCI in patients with acute myocardial infarction who present with cardiogenic shock[94]
- fewer early complications & lower mortality with culprit vessel only revascularization[94]
- early PCI associated with reduced mortality but higher costs, balanced by lower 180-day expenditures[82]
- also see PCI & STEMI
- intra-aortic balloon pump:[3]
- temporary cardiac pacemaker
- symptomatic bradycardia, including complete heart block
- alternating LBBB & RBBB
- new or indeterminant age bifascicular blodk with 1st degree AV block[6]
- blood transfusion may increase mortality[45]
- in hospital strategies that reduce mortality
- monthly meetings to review myocardial infarction cases with hospital clinicians & staff who transport patients to the hospital
- having an on-site cardiologist at all times
- cultivating an environment in which clinicians are encouraged to solve problems creatively
- avoiding cross-training of intensive care unit nurses for cardiac catheterization laboratories
- having at least one quality-improvement champion who is a physician rather than a nurse
- recovery (also see follow-up below)
- HMG CoA reductase inhibitor in hospital[24]
- see PROVE-IT & REVERSAL studies
- continue or begin within 24-96 hours[6]
- high-dose atorvastatin more effective than low-dose (see statin clinical trial)
- associated with lower mortality in patients < 80 years but not in those >= 80 years, as a group[51][69]
- no benefit to starting statin within 14 days of MI[61]
- target serum LDL cholesterol < 70 mg/dL
- add ezetimibe 10 mg to high-dose atorvastatin as needed to achieve LDL cholesterol goal[100]
- aldosterone antagonist at discharge for eligible STEMI & NSTEMI patients (quality measure)[80]
- prevention of coronary thrombosis
- low-dose aspirin (81 mg) long term
- dual antiplatelet therapy for one year
- clopidogrel (Plavix) or ticagrelor plus aspirin 81 mg[11] appears to be treatment of choice[6]
- esomeprazole more effective than famotidine in preventing GI bleed[40]
- dual antiplatelet therapy for 1-3 years improves cardiovascular outcomes[59][68]
- warfarin
- combination of warfarin + 81 mg aspirin (INR 2.0-3.0) better than aspirin or warfarin alone[11][13][19]
- direct-acting oral anticoagulant as add-on to antiplatelet therapy
- avoid NSAIDs other than low-dose aspirin
- NSAIDS increase risk of cardiovascular events[60]
- concurrent administration of proton pump inhibitor with NSAID &/or antithrombotic agent lowers risk of bleeding[67]
- polypill containing aspirin, statin, & ACE inhibitor improved outcomes in older patients with recent myocardial infarction[97]
- eplerenone (Inspra) for LV dysfunction[6]
- prolonged bedrest not recommended
- treat depression (see depression & heart disease)
- cardiac stem cell infusion
- implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs)
- > 40 days since MI
- LVEF <36% & NYHA class 2 or 3 heart failure
- LVEF <31% & NYHA class 1 heart failure[6]
- confers no survival advantage in high-risk patients early after myocardial infarction
- recurrent MI & cardiac rupture (non-arrhythmic) account for 50% of mortality after MI[33]
- chelation therapy with EDTA (40 infusions) reduces post-MI mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus[47]
- no benefit in patients without diabetes mellitus
- authors stop short of recommending chelation therapy for any group of patients[47]
- omega-3 fatty acid 1 g/day reduces mortality 45%[16]
- may be reasonable[73]
- colchicine 0.5 mg/day within 30 days may reduce risk of adverse cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction (RR=0.77)[90]; (RR=0.65)[103] type-2 diabetes
- dietary fibers, especially from grains & cereals, reduces mortality in patients after myocardial infarction[50]
- noninvasive stress testing before discharge in medically- treated patients (performance measure)[80]
- HMG CoA reductase inhibitor in hospital[24]
- follow-up
- screen for depression: associated with increased morbidity & mortality[6]
- physical therapy & occupational therapy
- cardiac rehabilitation
- rehabilitation treadmill testing 8-10 days post MI
- only 1/3 of survivors undergo cardiac rehabilitation[78]
- echocardiogram
- if LVEF < 40% (new onset LV dysfunction), perform coronary angiography [ref 48 cites ref 4]
- coronary angiography
- if indicated by rehabilitation treadmill testing or echocardiogram
- post infarction angina
- unable to exercise
- within 48 hours (TACTICS-TIMI trial)[9]
- PneumoVax, PCV13 & annual influenza virus vaccine[8]
- patients may resume sexual activity >= 1 week after uncomplicated acute MI if asymptomatic during mild or moderate physical activity[58]
- electronic reminders, financial incentives, & social support without effect on clinical outcomes or medication adherence[77]
- continue beta-blocker used for secondary prevention[106]
- post-MI non-cardiac surgery: delay (if possible) 4-6 weeks (uncomplicated MI)[49][52]
- 4-6 weeks for recipients of bare-metal stents
- 6-12 months for recipients of drug-eluting stents
- prognosis
- renal insufficiency portends poor prognosis[18]
- 3.7 fold increase in mortality with serum creatinine > 2.0 mg/dL
- hypokalemia or hyperkalemia associated with increased risk of ventricular fibrillation & mortality
- serum potassium < 3.0 meq/L or > 5.0 meq/L
- mortality unaffected by potassium supplementation[39]
- diabetes mellitus associated with poorer prognosis (see VALIANT study)
- impairment in timed get-up & go test predicts functional decline[89]
- presentation at off hours worsens prognosis[48]
- financial strain (subjective assessment of inability to make ends meet) associated with increased 6 month mortality[96]
- risk calculator to predict 6-month prognosis in elderly[91]
- renal insufficiency portends poor prognosis[18]
Comparative biology
- FSTL1 patches on the epicardial surface over an infarcted area of myocardium in mice or pigs resulted in regeneration of cardiomyocytes, increased vascularization, diminished scarring, improved contractility, & lengthened lifespan[66]
- in mice, monocytes producing tumor necrosis factor enter the brain after a myocardial infarction & induce slow wave sleep resulting in a reduction of cardiac inflammation[108]
Notes
- gene therapy with microRNAs resulted in cardiac muscle regeneration after myocardial infarction in mice[44]
More general terms
More specific terms
- anterior wall myocardial infarction (MI)
- inferior wall myocardial infarction (MI)
- Myocardial Infarction No Obstructive Coronary Artery disease (MINOCA)
- non ST segment elevated myocardial infarction (nonSTEMI, NSTEMI)
- non-Q-wave myocardial infarction
- posterior wall myocardial infarction (MI)
- reperfusion-eligible acute myocardial infarction
- right ventricular myocardial infarction (MI)
- silent myocardial infarction (silent MI)
- ST segment elevated myocardial infarction (STEMI)
Additional terms
- acute coronary syndrome; unstable angina (ACS)
- angina pectoris
- clinical trials for myocardial infarction
- complications of myocardial infarction
- coronary angiography
- coronary artery disease; coronary atherosclerosis (CAD)
- etiology of myocardial infarction (MI) without coronary atherosclerosis
- markers of myocardial injury/infarction
- myocardial ischemia
- Should We Emergently Revascularize Occluded Coronaries for Cardiogenic Shock (SHOCK) trial
- thrombolysis for acute myocardial infarction
References
- ↑ Cotran et al Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease, 5th ed. W.B. Saunders Co, Philadelphia, PA 1994 pg 15
- ↑ Manual of Medical Therapeutics, 28th ed, Ewald & McKenzie (eds), Little, Brown & Co, Boston, 1995, pg 94-113
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 DeGowin & DeGowin's Diagnostic Examination, 6th edition, RL DeGowin (ed), McGraw Hill, NY 1994, pg 237-239
- ↑ Ryan TJ et al ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Acute Myocardial Infarction). Circulation 94:2341-50 1996 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8901709
Canadian Cardiovascular Society; American Academy of Family Physicians; American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association. 2007 focused update of the ACC/AHA 2004 guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008 Jan 15;51(2):210-47. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18191746 - ↑ Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 231-234
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Mayo Internal Medicine Board Review, 1998-99, Prakash UBS (ed) Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1998, pg 91-91
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Journal Watch 21(3):24, 2001 Naghavi M et al Association of influenza vaccination and reduced risk of recurrent myocardial infarction. Circulation 102:3039, 2000 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11120692
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Journal Watch 22(2):13, 2002 Morrow DA et al Ability of minor elevations of troponins I and T to predict benefit from an early invasive strategy in patients with unstable angina and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction: results from a randomized trial. JAMA 286:2405, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11712935
Quinn MJ & Moliterna DJ Troponins in acute coronary syndromes: More TACTICS for an early invasive strategy. JAMA 286:2461, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11712942 - ↑ 10.0 10.1 Journal Watch 22(18):146, 2002 van Es RF et al Aspirin and coumadin after acute coronary syndromes (the ASPECT-2 study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 360:109, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12126819
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Prescriber's Letter 9(12):68 2002 (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Journal Watch 22(23):173, 2002 Shlipack MG et al Association of renal insufficiency with treatment and outcomes after myocardial infarction in elderly patients. Ann Intern Med 137:555, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12353942
Wright RS et al Acute myocardial infarction and renal dysfunction: a high-risk combination. Ann Intern Med 137:563, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12353943
Townsend RR Cardiac mortality in chronic kidney disease: a clearer perspective. Ann Intern Imed 137:615, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12353950 - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Journal Watch 22(22):164, 2002 Hurlen M et al Warfarin, aspirin, or both after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 347:969, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324552
Becker RC Antithrombotic therapy after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 347:1019, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324559 - ↑ Journal Watch 22(22):174, 2002 Dickstein K et al Effects of losartan and captopril on mortality and morbidity in high-risk patients after acute myocardial infarction: the OPTIMAAL randomised trial. Optimal Trial in Myocardial Infarction with Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan. Lancet 360:752, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12241832
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Journal Watch 23(5):42, 2003 Keeley EC et al Primary angioplasty versus intravenous thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: a quantitative review of 23 randomised trials. Lancet 361:13, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12517460
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Prescriber's Letter 10(7):38 2003 (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Journal Watch 22(1):1, 2004 Pfeffer MA et al Valsartan, captopril, or both in myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, or both. N Engl J Med 349:1893, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14610160
Mann DL & Deswal A Angiotensin-receptor blockade in acute myocardial infarction - a matter of dose. N Engl J Med 349:1963, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14610159 - ↑ 18.0 18.1 Journal Watch 24(2):16, 2004 Gibson CM et al Association of creatinine and creatinine clearance on presentation in acute myocardial infarction with subsequent mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 42:1535, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14607434
French WJ & Wright RS Renal insufficiency and worsened prognosis with STEMI: a call for action. J Am Coll Cardiol, 42:1544, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14607435 - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Anand SS and Yusuf S Oral anticoagulants in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 41:62S, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644343
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Prescriber's Letter 11(9): 2004 Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=200904&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Journal Watch 24(17):133, 2004 Pilote L, Abrahamowicz M, Rodrigues E, Eisenberg MJ, Rahme E. Mortality rates in elderly patients who take different angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors after acute myocardial infarction: a class effect? Ann Intern Med. 2004 Jul 20;141(2):102-12. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15262665
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Journal Watch 24(22):166, 2004 Fernandez-Aviles F, Alonso JJ, Castro-Beiras A, Vazquez N, Blanco J, Alonso-Briales J, Lopez-Mesa J, Fernandez-Vazquez F, Calvo I, Martinez-Elbal L, San Roman JA, Ramos B; GRACIA (Grupo de Analisis de la Cardiopatia Isquemica Aguda) Group. Routine invasive strategy within 24 hours of thrombolysis versus ischaemia-guided conservative approach for acute myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation (GRACIA-1): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004 Sep 18;364(9439):1045-53. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15380963
Assessment of the Safety and Efficacy of a New Treatment Strategy with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (ASSENT-4 PCI) investigators. Primary versus tenecteplase-facilitated percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction (ASSENT-4 PCI): randomised trial. Lancet. 2006 Feb 18;367(9510):569-78. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16488800
Keeley EC, Boura JA, Grines CL. Comparison of primary and facilitated percutaneous coronary interventions for ST-elevation myocardial infarction: quantitative review of randomised trials. Lancet. 2006 Feb 18;367(9510):579-88. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16488801
Stone GW, Gersh BJ. Facilitated angioplasty: paradise lost. Lancet. 2006 Feb 18;367(9510):543-6. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16488779 - ↑ 23.0 23.1 Journal Watch 25(4):29, 2005 Smeeth L, Thomas SL, Hall AJ, Hubbard R, Farrington P, Vallance P. Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke after acute infection or vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2004 Dec 16;351(25):2611-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15602021
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Prescriber's Letter 12(9): 2005 How Soon After a Heart Attack Should Statins be Initiated? Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=211010&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ Eagle KA, Montoye CK, Riba AL, DeFranco AC, Parrish R, Skorcz S, Baker PL, Faul J, Jani SM, Chen B, Roychoudhury C, Elma MA, Mitchell KR, Mehta RH; American College of Cardiology's Guidelines Applied in Practice (GAP) Projects in Michigan; American College of Cardiology Foundation (Bethesda, Maryland) Guidelines Applied in Practice Steering committee. Guideline-based standardized care is associated with substantially lower mortality in medicare patients with acute myocardial infarction: the American College of Cardiology's Guidelines Applied in Practice (GAP) Projects in Michigan. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 Oct 4;46(7):1242-8. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16198838
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Babaev A, Frederick PD, Pasta DJ, Every N, Sichrovsky T, Hochman JS; NRMI Investigators. Trends in management and outcomes of patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock. JAMA. 2005 Jul 27;294(4):448-54. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16046651
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 van 't Hof AW, Rasoul S, van de Wetering H, Ernst N, Suryapranata H, Hoorntje JC, Dambrink JH, Gosselink M, Zijlstra F, Ottervanger JP, de Boer MJ; On-TIME study group. Feasibility and benefit of prehospital diagnosis, triage, and therapy by paramedics only in patients who are candidates for primary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2006 Jun;151(6):1255.e1-5. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16781231 <Internet> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2006.03.014
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Parashar S et al, for Premier Registry Investigators Time Course of depression and outcome of myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 2006, 166:2035 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17030839
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Kenigsberg DN et al, Prolongation of the QTc interval is seen uniformly during early transmural ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007, 49:1299 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17394962
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Kitakaze M et al, Human atrial natriuretic peptide and nicorandil as adjuncts to reperfusion treatment for acute myodardial infarction (J-WIND): Two randomised trials Lancet 2007, 370:1483 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17964349
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Newsome BB, Warnock DG, McClellan WM, Herzog CA et al Long-term Risk of Mortality and End-Stage Renal Disease Among the Elderly After Small Increases in Serum Creatinine Level During Hospitalization for Acute Myocardial Infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Mar 24;168(6):609-16. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18362253
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Cantor WJ et al Routine Early Angioplasty after Fibrinolysis for Acute Myocardial Infarction N Engl J Med 2009, 360:2705-2718 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19553646 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/360/26/2705
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Steinbeck G et al. Defibrillator implantation early after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2009 Oct 8; 361:1427 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19812399 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/361/15/1427
Pouleur A-C et al. Pathogenesis of sudden unexpected death in a clinical trial of patients with myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure, or both. Circulation 2010 Aug; 122:597. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20660803 - ↑ Bartolo I et al. Rapid clinical progression to AIDS and death in a persistently seronegative HIV-1 infected heterosexual young man. AIDS 2009 Nov 13; 23:2359. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19809269
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Schjerning Olsen AM et al Duration of Treatment With Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Impact on Risk of Death and Recurrent Myocardial Infarction in Patients With Prior Myocardial Infarction <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21555710 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.004671v1
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Jabre P et al. Atrial fibrillation and death after myocardial infarction: A community study. Circulation 2011 May 17; 123:2094. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21536994
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Mostofsky E et al Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction after Death of a Significant Person in One's Life: The Determinants of MI Onset Study Circulation Published online January 9, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22230481 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2012/01/09/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.061770.abstract
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Fox CS et al. Short-term outcomes of acute myocardial infarction in patients with acute kidney injury: A report from the National Cardiovascular Data Registry. Circulation 2012 Jan 24; 125:497 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22179533
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Goyal A et al. Serum potassium levels and mortality in acute myocardial infarction. JAMA 2012 Jan 11; 307:157. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235086
Scirica BM and Morrow DA. Potassium concentration and repletion in patients with acute myocardial infarction. JAMA 2012 Jan 11; 307:195. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235091 - ↑ 40.0 40.1 Ng F-H et al. Esomeprazole compared with famotidine in the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with acute coronary syndrome or myocardial infarction. Am J Gastroenterol 2012 Mar; 107:389. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22108447
- ↑ Bradley EH et al. Hospital strategies for reducing risk-standardized mortality rates in acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 2012 May 1; 156:618. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22547471
- ↑ Dunlay SM et al. Thirty-day rehospitalizations after acute myocardial infarction: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2012 Jul 3; 157:11 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22751756
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Physician's First Watch, Aug 27, 2012 Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Eulalio A et al. Functional screening identifies miRNAs inducing cardiac regeneration. Nature 2012 Dec 20/27; 492:376 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222520
Mercola M. A boost for heart regeneration. Nature 2012 Dec 20/27; 492:360 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222522 - ↑ 45.0 45.1 Chatterjee S et al. Association of blood transfusion with increased mortality in myocardial infarction: A meta-analysis and diversity-adjusted study sequential analysis. Arch Intern Med 2012 Dec 24 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23266500 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1485987
- ↑ Panju AA, Hemmelgarn BR, Guyatt GH, Simel DL. The rational clinical examination. Is this patient having a myocardial infarction? JAMA. 1998 Oct 14;280(14):1256-63. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9786377
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Escolar E et al The Effect of an EDTA-based Chelation Regimen on Patients With Diabetes Mellitus and Prior Myocardial Infarction in the Trial to Assess Chelation Therapy (TACT) Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2014 Jan 1;7(1):15-24. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24254885 <Internet> http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/11/19/CIRCOUTCOMES.113.000663.abstract
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Sorita A et al Off-hour presentation and outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014;348:f7393 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24452368 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.f7393
Lapointe-Shaw L and Bell CM Acute myocardial infarction. BMJ 2014;348:f7696 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24452407 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.f7696 - ↑ 49.0 49.1 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
Geriatric Review Syllabus, 9th edition (GRS9) Medinal-Walpole A, Pacala JT, Porter JF (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2016 - ↑ 50.0 50.1 Li S et al Dietary fiber intake and mortality among survivors of myocardial infarction: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2014;348:g2659 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24782515 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g2659
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 Foody JM et al, Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors in older persons with acute myocardial infarction: Evidence for age- statin interaction J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54:421 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16551308
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 Livhits M, Ko CY, Leonardi MJ et al Risk of surgery following recent myocardial infarction. Ann Surg. 2011 May;253(5):857-64. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21372685
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Saaby L et al. Mortality rate in type 2 myocardial infarction: Observations from an unselected hospital cohort. Am J Med 2014 Apr; 127:295 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24457000
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Physician's First Watch, Sept 2, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief News from the European Society of Cardiology Congress. Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 American College of Cardiology Updates Heart Attack Recommendations. Sept 22, 2014 http://www.cardiosource.org/en/News-Media/Media-Center/News-Releases/2014/09/Choosing-Wisely-Statement.aspx
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Maddox TM et al Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease and Risk of Myocardial Infarction. JAMA. 2014;312(17):1754-1763. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25369489 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1920971
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Rubini Gimenez M, Reiter M, Twerenbold R, et al. Sex-specific chest pain characteristics in the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:241-249 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24275751
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Lindau ST, Abramsohn EM, Bueno H et al Sexual activity and counseling in the first month after acute myocardial infarction among younger adults in the United States and Spain: a prospective, observational study. Circulation. 2014 Dec 23;130(25):2302-9 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2551244 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2014/12/10/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.012709.abstract
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 AstraZeneca Global. Jan 14, 2015 PEGASUS-TIMI 54 study of BRILINTA<TM> meets primary endpoint in both 60mg and 90mg doses. http://www.astrazeneca.com/Media/Press-releases/Article/20150114--PEGASUS-TIMI-54-study--BRILINTA-meets-primary-endpoint-in-60mg-and-90mg-doses
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Schjerning Olsen AM et al Association of NSAID Use With Risk of Bleeding and Cardiovascular Events in Patients Receiving Antithrombotic Therapy After Myocardial Infarction. JAMA. 2015;313(8):805-814 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25710657 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130316
Campbell CL, Moliterno DJ Potential Hazards of Adding Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs to Antithrombotic Therapy After Myocardial Infarction. Time for More Than a Gut Check. JAMA. 2015;313(8):801-802 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25710655 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2130296 - ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Reichlin t et al Prospective validation of a 1-hour algorithm to rule-out and rule-in acute myocardial infarction using a high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T assay. http://www.cmaj.ca/content/early/2015/04/13/cmaj.141349.full.pdf+html
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Vale N, Nordmann AJ, Schwartz GG et al Statins for acute coronary syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Jun 15;(6):CD006870. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21678362
- ↑ The NNT: Beta Blockers for Acute Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction) http://www.thennt.com/nnt/beta-blockers-for-heart-attack/
Perez MI, Musini VM, Wright JM. Effect of early treatment with anti-hypertensive drugs on short and long-term mortality in patients with an acute cardiovascular event. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(4):CD006743. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19821384
Al-Reesi A1, Al-Zadjali N, Perry J et al Do beta-blockers reduce short-term mortality following acute myocardial infarction? A systematic review and meta- analysis. CJEM. 2008 May;10(3):215-23. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19019272
Sinert R1, Newman DH, Brandler E, Paladino L Immediate beta-blockade in patients with myocardial infarctions: is there evidence of benefit? Ann Emerg Med. 2010 Nov;56(5):571-7 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20493586 - ↑ 64.0 64.1 The NNT: Heparin Given for Acute Coronary Syndromes (Unstable Angina, NSTEMI, STEMI) http://www.thennt.com/nnt/heparin-for-acute-coronary-syndromes/
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Dupre ME et al Association Between Divorce and Risks for Acute Myocardial Infarction. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes (CIRCOUTCOMES). April 14, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25872508 <Internet> http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/early/2015/04/13/CIRCOUTCOMES.114.001291.abstract
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 Wei K et al. Epicardial FSTL1 reconstitution regenerates the adult mammalian heart. Nature 2015 Sep 24; 525:479. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26375005
Vunjak-Novakovic G. Cardiac biology: A protein for healing infarcted hearts. Nature 2015 Sep 24; 525:461 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26375007 - ↑ 67.0 67.1 Schjerning Olsen AM, Lindhardsen J, Gislason GH et al. Impact of proton pump inhibitor treatment on gastrointestinal bleeding associated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use among post-myocardial infarction patients taking antithrombotics: Nationwide study. BMJ. 2015 Oct 19;351:h5096 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26481405
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 Timmis A et al. Prolonged dual antiplatelet therapy in stable coronary disease: Comparative observational study of benefits and harms in unselected versus trial populations. BMJ 2016 Jun 22; 353:i3163. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27334486
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Brett AS Statins in Patients with Coronary Disease Who Are Older than 80. NEJM Journal Watch. July 28, 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society (subscription needed) http://www.jwatch.org
Rothschild DP, Novak E, Rich MW. Effect of Statin Therapy on Mortality in Older Adults Hospitalized with Coronary Artery Disease: A Propensity- Adjusted Analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016 Jul;64(7):1475-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27295083 - ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Puymirat E et al beta Blockers and mortality after myocardial infarction in patients without heart failure: multicentre prospective cohort study. BMJ 2016;354:i4801 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27650822 Free Article <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/354/bmj.i4801
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Smyth A, O'Donnell M, Lamelas P et al Physical Activity and Anger or Emotional Upset as Triggers of Acute Myocardial Infarction. The INTERHEART Study. Circulation. 2016;134:1059-1067 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27753614 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/134/15/1059
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Steinman MA et al. Association of beta-blockers with functional outcomes, death, and rehospitalization in older nursing home residents after acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med 2016 Dec 12 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27942713
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 Siscovick DS, Barringer TA, Fretts AM et al Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (Fish Oil) Supplementation and the Prevention of Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation. March 13, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28289069 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2017/03/13/CIR.0000000000000482
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 Pickering JW, Than MP, Cullen L et al Rapid Rule-out of Acute Myocardial Infarction With a Single High- Sensitivity Cardiac Troponin T Measurement Below the Limit of Detection: A Collaborative Meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. April 18, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28418520 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article/2619006/rapid-rule-out-acute-myocardial-infarction-single-high-sensitivity-cardiac
- ↑ Anderson JL, Morrow DA. Acute Myocardial Infarction. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:2053-2064. May 25, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28538121 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1606915
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 Dondo TB, Hall M, Wes RM et al beta-Blockers and Mortality After Acute Myocardial Infarction in Patients Without Heart Failure or Ventricular Dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 22, June 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28571635 Free Article <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/22/2710
Ibanez B, Raposeiras-Roubin S, Garcia-Ruiz JM The Swing of beta-Blockers. J Am Coll Cardiol. Volume 69, Issue 22, June 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28571636 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/69/22/2721 - ↑ 77.0 77.1 Volpp KG, Troxel AB, Mehta SJ et al. Effect of electronic reminders, financial incentives, and social support on outcomes after myocardial infarction: The HeartStrong randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2017 Jun 26 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28654972 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2633258
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 Fang J, Ayala C, Luncheon C, Ritchey M, Loustalot F. Use of Outpatient Cardiac Rehabilitation Among Heart Attack Survivors - 20 States and the District of Columbia, 2013 and Four States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017;66:869-873 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6633a1.htm
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 Hofmann R, James SK, Jernberg T et al. Oxygen therapy in suspected acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2017 Aug 28; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28844200 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1706222
Loscalzo J. Is oxygen therapy beneficial in acute myocardial infarction? Simple question, complicated mechanism, simple answer. N Engl J Med 2017 Aug 28; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28844195 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe1709250
Fu S, Lv X, Fang Q, Liu Z. Oxygen therapy for acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud 2017 Sep; 74:8 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28595112 - ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 Writing Committee Members, Jneid H, Addison D, Bhatt DL et al 2017 AHA/ACC Clinical Performance and Quality Measures for Adults With ST-Elevation and Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. September 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28943066 <Internet> http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/early/2017/09/14/j.jacc.2017.06.032
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 Kwong JC, Schwartz KL, Campitelli MA et al Acute Myocardial Infarction after Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza Infection. N Engl J Med 2018; 378:345-353. Jan 25, 2018 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29365305 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1702090
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Likosky DS, Van Parys J, Zhou W et al. Association between Medicare expenditure growth and mortality rates in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A comparison from 1999 through 2014. JAMA Cardiol 2017 Dec 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29261829
- ↑ 83.0 83.1 Chiarito M, Cao D, Cannata F et al Direct Oral Anticoagulants in Addition to Antiplatelet Therapy for Secondary Prevention After Acute Coronary Syndromes. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol. Published online February 7, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29417147 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/article-abstract/2672050
- ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 Ibanez B, James S. 'Ten Commandments' of the 2017 ESC STEMI Guidelines Eur Heart J. 2018;39(2):83 Not indexed in PubMed Medscape early release March 2018 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/891454
- ↑ McCarthy CP, Vaduganathan M, Januzzi JL Jr et al Type 2 Myocardial Infarction - Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment. JAMA. Published online June 11, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29889937 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2684931
- ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 Mohammad MA, Koul S, Rylance R et al Association of Weather With Day-to-Day Incidence of Myocardial Infarction. A SWEDEHEART Nationwide Observational Study. JAMA Cardiol. Published online October 24, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3042220 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/fullarticle/2706610
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Mohammad MA, Karlsson S, Haddad J et al Christmas, national holidays, sport events, and time factors as triggers of acute myocardial infarction: SWEDEHEART observational study 1998-2013. BMJ 2018;363:k4811 https://www.bmj.com/content/363/bmj.k4811
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 Musher DM, Abers MS, Corrales-Medina VF Acute Infection and Myocardial Infarction. N Engl J Med 2019; 380:171-176 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30625066 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1808137
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 Hajduk AM, Murphy TE, Geda ME et al. Association between mobility measured during hospitalization and functional outcomes in older adults with acute myocardial infarction in the SILVER-AMI study. JAMA Intern Med 2019 Oct 7 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31589285 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2752364
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 Tardif JC et al. Efficacy and safety of low-dose colchicine after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2019 Nov 16; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31733140 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1912388
Newby LK. Inflammation as a treatment target after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2019 Nov 16 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31733139 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe1914378 - ↑ 91.0 91.1 Dodson JA, Hajduk AM, Geda M et al. Predicting 6-month mortality for older adults hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2019 Dec 10; 172:12. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31816630
- ↑ Dhruva SS, Ross JS, Mortazavi BJ et al. Association of use of an intravascular microaxial left ventricular assist device vs intra-aortic balloon pump with in-hospital mortality and major bleeding among patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock. JAMA 2020 Feb 10; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32040163 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2761003
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Tong DC et al. Colchicine in patients with acute coronary syndrome: The Australian COPS randomized clinical trial. Circulation 2020 Aug 29; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32862667 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.050771
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 Khera R et al. Revascularization practices and outcomes in patients with multivessel coronary artery disease who presented with acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock in the US, 2009-2018 JAMA Intern Med 2020 Aug 24; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32833024 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2769548
DeJong C, Redberg RF. Multivessel or culprit vessel-only percutaneous coronary intervention for patients with acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock: Real-world evidence in support of CULPRIT-SHOCK. JAMA Intern Med 2020 Aug 24; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32833000 - ↑ 95.0 95.1 Pfeffer MA, Claggett B, Lewis EF et al. Angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibition in acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2021 Nov 11; 385:1845 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34758252 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2104508
- ↑ 96.0 96.1 Falvey JR, Hajduk AM, Keys CR, Chaudhry SI. Association of financial strain with mortality among older US adults recovering from an acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med 2022 Feb 21; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35188537 PMCID: PMC8861896 (available on 2023-02-21) https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2788997
- ↑ 97.0 97.1 Castellano JM et al. Polypill strategy in secondary cardiovascular prevention. N Engl J Med 2022 Aug 26; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36018037 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2208275
Wang TJ. The polypill at 20 - What have we learned? N Engl J Med 2022 Aug 26; [e-pub] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36018010 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe2210020 - ↑ 98.0 98.1 Johansen MC, Ye W, Gross A et al Association Between Acute Myocardial Infarction and Cognition. JAMA Neurol. Published online May 30, 2023. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37252710 PMCID: PMC10230369 Free PMC article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/article-abstract/2805553
- ↑ Goldstein DW, Hajduk AM, Song X et al Falls in older adults after hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2021 Dec;69(12):3476-3485. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34383963 PMCID: PMC8882265 Free PMC article.
- ↑ 100.0 100.1 Aguilar-Salinas CA, Gomez-Diaz RA, Corral P. New therapies for primary hyperlipidemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107:1216-1224. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34888679
- ↑ Durko AP, Budde RPJ, Geleijnse ML, et al. Recognition, assessment and management of the mechanical complications of acute myocardial infarction. Heart. 2018;104:1216-1223. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146624
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 NEJM Knowledge+
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Roubille F, Bouabdallaoui N, Kouz S, et al. Low-Dose Colchicine in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes and Recent Myocardial Infarction in the COLchicine Cardiovascular Outcomes Trial (COLCOT). Diabetes Care. 2024 Jan 5:dc231825 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38181203
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 Yndigegn T, Lindahl B, Mars K et al. Beta-blockers after myocardial infarction and preserved ejection fraction. N Engl J Med 2024 Apr 7; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38587241 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2401479
Steg PG. Routine beta-blockers in secondary prevention - On injured reserve. N Engl J Med 2024 Apr 7; [e-pub]. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38587255 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe2402731 - ↑ 105.0 105.1 Ishani A, Hau C, Cushman WC, Leatherman SM et al Chlorthalidone vs Hydrochlorothiazide for Hypertension Treatment After Myocardial Infarction or Stroke: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2024 May 1;7(5):e2411081. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38743423 PMCID: PMC11094558 Free PMC article. Clinical Trial.
- ↑ 106.0 106.1 Lou N Stopping Beta-Blockers Did Not Go as Planned for Long-Time Users. No benefit to beta-blocker interruption among MI survivors using them for secondary prevention. MedPage Today August 30, 2024 https://www.medpagetoday.com/meetingcoverage/esc/111740
Silvain J, Cayla G, Ferrari E, et al. Beta-Blocker Interruption or Continuation after Myocardial Infarction. N Engl J Med. 2024 Aug 30. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39213187 https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2404204 - ↑ 107.0 107.1 Echivard M, Sellal JM, Ziliox C et al Prognostic value of ventricular arrhythmia in early post-infarction left ventricular dysfunction: the French nationwide WICD-MI study. Eur Heart J. 2024 Sep 20:ehae575. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39299922 https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae575/7762185
- ↑ 108.0 108.1 Lenharo M The brain summons deep sleep for healing from life-threatening injury. A heart attack unleashes immune cells that stimulate sleep neurons, leading to restorative slumber. Nature News. 2024. Oct https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-03491-2
Huynh P, Hoffmann JD, Gerhardt T et al Myocardial infarction augments sleep to limit cardiac inflammation and damage. Nature. 2024 Oct 30. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39478215 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08100-w.epdf
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