peripheral arterial disease; peripheral artery atherosclerosis (PAD)
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Introduction
Also see
Etiology
- risk factors the same as for coronary artery disease[2]
- in middle age & older men, major risk factors include:
- smoking
- hypertension
- each 20 mm Hg increase in systolic BP & each 10 mm Hg increase in diastolic BP is associated with 63% & 35% higher risks for PAD[37]
- hypercholesterolemia
- diabetes mellitus type 2[17]
- less common causes include[45]
Epidemiology
- 29% of patients who smoke or have diabetes[3] (40% of these same patients had coronary artery disease)
- 9% of patients with PVD have symptomatic claudication[3]
- 20% of patients > 70
Pathology
- most commonly involves the lower extremities[1]
- part of a larger process involving atherosclerosis of the aorta & its branches[1]
- patients appear to develop a metabolic myopathy & axonal polyneuropathy related to chronic lower extremity ischemia resulting in abnormal biomechanics prior to the onset of pain[13]
- increased plasma levels of trimethylamine N-oxide increases mortality in patients with PAD[40]
Genetics
- implicated genes
Clinical manifestations
- signs of asymptomatic disease
- ankle to brachial index < 0.9 (lower extremity disease)
- carotid bruit or diminished carotid pulse
- femoral bruit
- reduced exercise capacity
- most patients are asymptomatic
- intermittent claudication is a sign of symptomatic disease
- pain, paresthesias, pallor, paralysis, pulselessness[1]
- exertional leg pain that improves quickly (within 5 minutes) with rest (see intermittent claudication)
- abnormalities in torque & power at the hip, knee, & ankle immediately upon walking (before onset of pain)
- unequal brachial blood pressure
- systolic blood pressure difference of >= 15 mm Hg between arms may be associated with PAD of subclavian artery[16]
- if occlusion occurs proximal to the origin of the vertebral artery, retrograde blood flow from the CNS to the arm results in subclavian steal syndrome[1]
- systolic blood pressure difference of >= 15 mm Hg between arms may be associated with PAD of subclavian artery[16]
- abdominal pulse may be due to abdominal aortic aneurysm[1]
- diminished peripheral pulses
- elevation pallor & dependent rubor[1]
- may be associated with mild dependent edema
- non-healing leg ulcers
- tendinous xanthoma[1]
* also see carotid artery disease
Diagnostic procedures
- echocardiogram: embolic source of ischemia
- ankle/brachial index (ABI) of < 0.9 is diagnostic of PAD
- bilateral brachial blood pressure for upper extremity PAD[1]
* video[49]
Radiology
- screening[10]
- ultrasound, ankle-brachial index
- contrast-enhanced MRI best 95% sensitivity, 97% specificity[14]
- CT angiography or MRI angiography
- failure of medical therapy, including supervised exercise
- identifies vascular pathology & aids in planning revascularization[1]
* video[49]
Complications
- acute limb ischemia
- chronic limb-threatening ischemia
- arterial ulcers*
- often painful
- frequently occur where collateral circulation is minimal
- predictive of other comorbid cardiovascular disease
- coronary artery disease
- cerebrovascular disease[26]
- annual risk of cardiovascular event(s) is 5-7%[1]*
- 50% increase in risk of cardiovascular events[37]*
* risk of myocardial infarction > arterial ulcers[59]
Differential diagnosis
- lumbar spinal stenosis
- chronic exertional compartment syndrome
- also see intermittent claudication for distingushing features
Management
- acute arterial ischemia
- start heparin
- consult vascular surgery[1]
- diet & life-style modification (see CAD)
- exercise training & rehabilitation[1][22]
- structured, supervised exercise program most effective treatment[1][32][41]
- high-intensity walking therapy is the standard of care;
- it is superior to low-intensity walking[55]
- a home-based exercise intervention consisting of a wearable activity monitor & telephone coaching, did not improve walking performance at 9-month follow-up[48]
- home-based, behavior-change program improved 6-minute walking distance by ~25 meters[57]
- smoking cessation
- avoid second-hand smoke[41]
- fruits & vegetable consumption may lower risk[42]
- nut consumption may lower risk[43]
- exercise training & rehabilitation[1][22]
- control blood pressure
- target systolic BP of 135-145 mm Hg & diastolic BP of 60-90 mm Hg[23]
- control diabetes mellitus
- pharmaceutical agents
- treat dyslipidemia (see CAD)[6]
- high-intensity statin therapy
- 40-80 mg atorvastatin QD or 20-40 mg rosuvastatin QD
- 80 mg of atorvastatin may improve pain-free walking time (without effect on ankle to brachial index)[5]
- 40 mg simvastatin diminished risk of major vascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease (5-6%)[8]
- target LDL < 70 mg/dL[62]
- statins reduce progression of arterial stiffness in Chinese as assessed by brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity[58]
- high-intensity statin therapy
- antiplatelet agents
- monotherapy, no evidence to support dual anti-platelet therapy[1]
- recommended for all symptomatic patients[1]
- aspirin
- of no benefit (statistically)[11]; uncertain benefit[15]
- preferred over clopidogrel[1]
- reduces risk for myocardial infarction, stroke, & acute limb ischemia[1]
- dipyridamole/aspirin (Aggrenox)
- clopidogrel (Plavix) unless patient is taking aspirin
- ticagrelor (Brilinta) no better than clopidogrel[39]
- no benefit of added warfarin; potential harm[1][9][15]
- rivaroxaban 2.5 mg BID + aspirin 100 mg/day decreases cardiovascular events (RR=0.72) at the cost of increased risk of bleeding (mostly GI bleeding) (RR=1.6)[46]
- recommended by AHA/ACC if not at increased bleeding risk[62]
- anticoagulation is not indicated in the absence of symptomatic limb ischemia[50]
- ACE inhibitors
- reduce risk of myocardial infarction & stroke in patients with peripheral arterial disease[4]
- improve walking distance in patients with peripheral arterial disease[18][19]
- cilostazol rather than pentoxifylline for intermittent claudication
- contraindicated in heart failure (HFrEF)
- achieves benefits in walking distance sustained at 24 weeks[1][30]
- preferred option prior to referral to vascular surgery[1]
- in patients with type 2 diabetes GLP-1 agonists & SGLT-2 inhibitors reduce major cardiovascular events[62]
- beta-blockers are not contraindicated
- Ginkgo biloba may be of benefit
- GM-CSF of no benefit[44]
- treat dyslipidemia (see CAD)[6]
see secondary prevention in patients with cardiovascular disease
- angioplasty or surgery (lower extremity revascularization)
- failure of medical therapy, including supervised exercise & cilostazol[1]
- pain at rest
- poorly healing ulcers
- critical limb ischemia (urgent)
- peripheral artery bypass
- endovascular stenting for aortoiliac occlusion[1]
- conflicting data on mortality with use of paclitaxel-eluting stents[54]
- endarterectomy with passible surgical patch repair for common femoral artery occlusion[1]
- paclitaxel-coated angioplasty balloon catheter (Lutonix DCB) FDA-approved for superficial femoral artery & popliteal artery occlusion[28]
- apparent lack of benefit for women
- 54-55% 3-year mortality in patients after endovascular revascularization[56]
- higher rates of adverse outomes with angioplasty, stenting, atherectomy ' within 6 months of diagnosis unless limb-threatening ischemia[60]
- annual influenza vaccination[41]
- screening for peripheral arterial disease (asymptomatic)
Notes
- European Society of Cardiology guidelines[63]
More general terms
More specific terms
- atheroembolism; cholesterol embolism; aortic atheroembolism
- critical limb ischemia
- intermittent claudication; vascular claudication; Charcot's syndrome; myasthenia angiosclerotica
Additional terms
- ankle-brachial index (ABI) or ankle-arm index (AAI)
- arterial ulcer
- carotid artery disease
- coronary artery disease; coronary atherosclerosis (CAD)
- peripheral vascular system
- screening for peripheral arterial disease
- secondary prevention in patients with cardiovascular disease
- vertebrobasilar disease
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2022.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022 - ↑ 2.0 2.1 Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 286-87
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Journal Watch 21(21):168, 2001 Hirsch AT et al Peripheral arterial disease detection, awareness, and treatment in primary care. JAMA 286:1317, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11560536
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Peripheral Arterial Disease Prescriber's Letter 10(2):9 2003 Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=190204&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Journal Watch 24(3):22, 2004 Mohler ER III et al Cholesterol reduction with atorvastatin improves walking distance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 108:1481, 2003 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952839
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Statins and Peripheral Arterial Disease Prescriber's Letter 10(10):60 2003 Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=191006&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ Hirsch AT et al, ACC/AHA Guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, abdominal aortic) J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 47:1239 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16545667 Circulation 2006, 113:e463 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15333335 <Internet> http://www.acc.org/clinical/guidelines/pad/index.pdf
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. Randomized trial of the effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on peripheral vascular and other major vascular outcomes in 20,536 people with peripheral arterial disease and other high-risk conditions. J Vasc Surg. 2007 Apr;45(4):645-654; discussion 653-4. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17398372
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Anand S et al and the Warfarin Antiplatelet Vasculare Evaluation Trial Investigators Oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy and peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med 2007, 357:217 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17634457
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Collins R, Burch J, Cranny G, Aguiar-Ibez R, et al Duplex ultrasonography, magnetic resonance angiography, and computed tomography angiography for diagnosis and assessment of symptomatic, lower limb peripheral arterial disease: systematic review. BMJ. 2007 Jun 16;334(7606):1257. Epub 2007 Jun 4. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17548364
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Berger JS et al Aspirin for the prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral artery disease: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA 2009 May 13; 301:1909. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19436018
Dermott MM and Criqui MH. Aspirin and secondary prevention in peripheral artery disease: A perspective for the early 21st century. JAMA 2009 May 13; 301:1927. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19436022 - ↑ Fowkes FGR et al Aspirin for prevention of cardiovascular events in a general population screened for a low ankle brachial index: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010 Mar 3; 303:841. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20197530
Berger JS. Aspirin as preventive therapy in patients with asymptomatic vascular disease. JAMA 2010 Mar 3; 303:880. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20197537 - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Koutakis P et al. Abnormal joint powers before and after the onset of claudication symptoms. J Vasc Surg 2010 Aug; 52:340. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20670775
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Menke J and Larsen J Meta-analysis: Accuracy of Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Assessing Steno-occlusions in Peripheral Arterial Disease Annals of Internal Medicine 2010, 153:325-334 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20820041 <Internet> http://www.annals.org/content/153/5/325.abstract
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Rooke TW et al 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused Update of the Guideline for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease (Updating the 2005 Guideline): A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/ American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Circulation published online September 29, 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21959305 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2011/09/29/CIR.0b013e31822e80c3
Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S et al 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused Update of the Guideline for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease (updating the 2005 guideline): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011 Nov 1;58(19):2020-45 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21963765 - ↑ 16.0 16.1 Clark CE et al Association of a difference in systolic blood pressure between arms with vascular disease and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis Lancet. 2012 Jan 27. [Epub ahead of print] <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22293369 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61710-8/fulltext
McManus RJ and Mant J Do differences in blood pressure between arms matter? Lancet. 2012 Jan 27. [Epub ahead of print] <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22293365 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61926-0/fulltext - ↑ 17.0 17.1 Joosten MM et al Associations Between Conventional Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Risk of Peripheral Artery Disease in Men. JAMA. 2012;308(16):1660-1667 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23093164 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1386609
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Prescriber's Letter 20(4): 2013 Peripheral Artery Disease Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=290406&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
Abramson BL, Huckell V, Anand S et al Canadian Cardiovascular Society Consensus Conference: peripheral arterial disease - executive summary. Can J Cardiol. 2005 Oct;21(12):997-1006. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16234879 - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Shahin Y, Mazari F, Chetter I Do angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors improve walking distance in patients with symptomatic lower limb arterial disease? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Int J Surg. 2011;9(3):209-13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21195215
- ↑ Mohler E 3rd, Giri J; ACC; AHA. Management of peripheral arterial disease patients: comparing the ACC/AHA and TASC-II guidelines. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008 Sep;24(9):2509-22. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18664318
- ↑ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA et al Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II). J Vasc Surg. 2007 Jan;45 Suppl S:S5-67. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17223489
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 McDermott MM, Ades P, Guralnik JM et al Treadmill exercise and resistance training in patients with peripheral arterial disease with and without intermittent claudication: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009 Jan 14;301(2):165-74 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141764
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Bavry AA, Anderson RD, Gong Y et al Outcomes Among hypertensive patients with concomitant peripheral and coronary artery disease: findings from the INternational VErapamil-SR/Trandolapril STudy. Hypertension. 2010 Jan;55(1):48-53 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19996066
- ↑ Schillinger M, Sabeti S, Loewe C et al Balloon angioplasty versus implantation of nitinol stents in the superficial femoral artery. N Engl J Med. 2006 May 4;354(18):1879-88. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16672699
Laird JR, Katzen BT, Scheinert D et al Nitinol stent implantation versus balloon angioplasty for lesions in the superficial femoral artery and proximal popliteal artery: twelve-month results from the RESILIENT randomized trial. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2010 Jun 1;3(3):267-76. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20484101 - ↑ 25.0 25.1 Moyer VA et al Screening for Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index in Adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(5):342-348 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24026320 <Internet> http://annalLin JS et al. The ankles.org/article.aspx?articleid=1733279
Lin JS et al. The ankle-brachial index for peripheral artery disease screening and cardiovascular disease prediction among asymptomatic adults: A systematic evidence review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2013 Sep 3; 159:333 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24026319
McDermott MM Ankle-Brachial Index Screening to Improve Health Outcomes: Where Is the Evidence? Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(5):362-363 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24026321 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1733280 - ↑ 26.0 26.1 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
- ↑ Alonso-Coello P , Bellmunt S, McGorrian C et al Antithrombotic therapy in peripheral artery disease: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e669S-90S. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315275 (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Dec 2017)
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 FDA News Release. October 10, 2014 FDA approves first drug-coated angioplasty balloon catheter to treat vascular disease http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm418455.htm
- ↑ McDermott MM, Liu K, Guralnik JM et al Home-based walking exercise intervention in peripheral artery disease: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013 Jul 3;310(1):57-65 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23821089
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Pande RL, Hiatt WR, Zhang P, Hittel N, Creager MA A pooled analysis of the durability and predictors of treatment response of cilostazol in patients with intermittent claudication. Vasc Med. 2010 Jun;15(3):181-8 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20385711
- ↑ Berger JS, Hiatt WR. Medical therapy in peripheral artery disease. Circulation. 2012 Jul 24;126(4):491-500. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22825411
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Murphy TP, Cutlip DE, Regensteiner JG et al Supervised exercise versus primary stenting for claudication resulting from aortoiliac peripheral artery disease: six-month outcomes from the claudication: exercise versus endoluminal revascularization (CLEVER) study. Circulation. 2012 Jan 3;125(1):130-9. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22090168
- ↑ Anderson JL, Halperin JL, Albert NM et al Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (compilation of 2005 and 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline recommendations): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/ American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2013 Apr 2;127(13):1425-43 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23457117
- ↑ Berger JS, Hochman J, Lobach I et al Modifiable risk factor burden and the prevalence of peripheral artery disease in different vascular territories. J Vasc Surg. 2013 Sep;58(3):673-81 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23642926
- ↑ Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S et al 2011 ACCF/AHA focused update of the guideline for the management of patients with peripheral artery disease (updating the 2005 guideline): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology, Society for Vascular Medicine, and Society for Vascular Surgery. J Vasc Surg. 2011 Nov;54(5):e32-58 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21958560
- ↑ Khan NA, Rahim SA, Anand SS, Simel DL, Panju A. Does the clinical examination predict lower extremity peripheral arterial disease? JAMA. 2006 Feb 1;295(5):536-46. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16449619
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Emdin CA et al. Usual blood pressure, peripheral arterial disease, and vascular risk: Cohort study of 4.2 million adults. BMJ 2015 Sep 29; 351:h4865 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26419648 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h4865
- ↑ Savji N, Rockman CB, Skolnick AH et al Association between advanced age and vascular disease in different arterial territories: a population database of over 3.6 million subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013 Apr 23;61(16):1736-43. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23500290 Free Article
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Husten L. MedPage Today. Oct 4, 2016 CardioBrief: Ticagrelor No Better Than Clopidogrel in PAD. AstraZeneca announced results of the EUCLID (Examining Use of Ticagrelor in PAD) trial ahead of AHA 2016 meeting. http://www.medpagetoday.com/Cardiology/CardioBrief/60607
Hiatt WR et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in symptomatic peripheral artery disease. N Engl J Med 2016 Nov 13; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27959717 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1611688
Jones WS, Baumgartner I, Hiatt WR Ticagrelor Compared With Clopidogrel in Patients with Prior Lower Extremity Revascularization for Peripheral Artery Disease. Circulation. 2016 Nov 13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27840336 - ↑ 40.0 40.1 Senthong V, Wang Z, Li XS, Fan Y, Wu Y, Tang WH, Hazen SL Trimethylamine N-Oxide and Mortality Risk in Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016; 5: e004237, Online October 19, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27287696 Free PMC Article <Internet> http://jaha.ahajournals.org/content/5/10/e004237.abstract
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Gerhart-Herman MD, Gornick HL, Barrett D et al 2016 AHA/ACC Guideline on the Management of Patients With Lower Extremity Peripheral Artery Disease: Executive Summary. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2016 Nov 13. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2784033 <Internet> http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2016/11/11/CIR.0000000000000470
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Bachert A Fruits, Vegetables in Diet Linked to Lower Risk of PAD - Suggests a role for lifestyle counseling in PAD management. MedPage Today. May 18, 2017 https://www.medpagetoday.com/Cardiology/PeripheralArteryDisease/65399
Heffron S, et al Greater frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with lower prevalence of peripheral artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2017 Jun;37(6):1234-1240. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28522699 - ↑ 43.0 43.1 Heffron SP, Rockman CB, Gianos E, Guo Y, Berger JS. Greater frequency of nut consumption is associated with lower prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Prev Med. 2015 Mar;72:15-8. doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.014. Epub 2014 Dec 19. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25532677 Free PMC Article
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 McDermott MM, Ferrucci L, Tian L et al Effect of Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor With or Without Supervised Exercise on Walking Performance in Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease. The PROPEL Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. Published online November 15, 2017 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29141087 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2663302
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Kelly NP, Vaidya A, Gerhard-Herman M, Desai AS An Unusual Cause of Leg Pain N Engl J Med 2017; 377:e29. November 16, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29141172 Free full text <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMimc1616174
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Anand SS, Bosch J, Eikelboom JW et al. Rivaroxaban with or without aspirin in patients with stable peripheral or carotid artery disease: An international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2017 Nov 10; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29132880 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32409-1/fulltext
Berger JS. Antithrombotic therapy in peripheral artery disease. Lancet 2017 Nov 10; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29132877 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32847-7/fulltext - ↑ 47.0 47.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Recommendation Statement Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Draft Evidence Review for Peripheral Artery Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: Screening and Risk Assessment With the Ankle-Brachial Index. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/peripheral-artery-disease-in-adults-screening-with-the-ankle-brachial-index - ↑ 48.0 48.1 McDermott MM et al. Effect of a home-based exercise intervention of wearable technology and telephone coaching on walking performance in peripheral artery disease: The HONOR randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2018 Apr 24; 319:1665 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29710165
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Gogalniceanu P, Lancaster RT, Patel VI Videos in Clinical Medicine. Clinical Assessment of Peripheral Arterial Disease of the Lower Limbs. N Engl J Med 2018; 378:e24. May 3, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29719182 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMvcm1406358
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Hess CN, Hiatt WR. Antithrombotic Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease in 2018. JAMA. Published online June 1, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29860284 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2683733
- ↑ Rothaus C Chronic Critical Limb Ischemia. NEJM Resident 360. July 11, 2018 https://resident360.nejm.org/content_items/chronic-critical-limb-ischemia
- ↑ Foley TR, Waldo SW, Armstrong EJ. Medical Therapy in Peripheral Artery Disease and Critical Limb Ischemia. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2016 Jul;18(7):42. Review. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27181397
- ↑ Gerhard-Herman MD, Gornik HL, Barrett C et al 2016 AHA/ACC Guideline on the Management of Patients With Lower Extremity Peripheral Artery Disease: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017 Mar 21;69(11):1465-1508. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27851991 Free Article
Gerhard-Herman MD, Gornik HL, Barrett C et al 2016 AHA/ACC Guideline on the Management of Patients With Lower Extremity Peripheral Artery Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017 Mar 21;69(11):e71-e126. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27851992 Free Article - ↑ 54.0 54.1 Rocha-Singh KJ, Duval S, Jaff MR et al. Mortality and paclitaxel-coated devices: An individual patient data meta-analysis. Circulation 2020 May 6 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32370548 https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.044697
Nordanstig J, James S, Andersson M et al Mortality with Paclitaxel-Coated Devices in Peripheral Artery Disease. N Engl J Med 2020. Dec 9 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33296560 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2005206 - ↑ 55.0 55.1 McDermott MM et al. Effect of low-intensity vs high-intensity home-based walking exercise on walk distance in patients with peripheral artery disease: The LITE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2021 Apr 6; 325:1266. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33821898 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2778112
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Secemsky EA, Shen C, Schermerhorn M et al Longitudinal Assessment of Safety of Femoropopliteal Endovascular Treatment With Paclitaxel-Coated Devices Among Medicare Beneficiaries. The SAFE-PAD Study. JAMA Intern Med. Published online May 16, 2021 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33993204 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2780092
Redberg RF, McDermott MM High Mortality Rates in Medicare Patients After Peripheral Artery Disease Revascularization. JAMA Intern Med. Published online May 16, 202 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33993231 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2780093 - ↑ 57.0 57.1 Bearne LM et al. Effect of a home-based, walking exercise behavior change intervention vs usual care on walking in adults with peripheral artery disease: The MOSAIC randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2022 Apr 12; 327:1344. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35412564 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2790937
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Zhou YF, Wang Y, Wang G et al Association Between Statin Use and Progression of Arterial Stiffness Among Adults With High Atherosclerotic Risk. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(6):e2218323 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35713899 Free article https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2793490
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 Haitt WR Medical treatment of peripheral arterial disease and claudication. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(21):1608-1621 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11372014
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Sorber R et al. Early peripheral vascular interventions for claudication are associated with higher rates of late interventions and progression to chronic limb threatening ischemia. J Vasc Surg 2023 Mar; 77:836. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37225352
- ↑ Gerhard-Herman MD, Gornik HL, Barrett C, et al. 2016 AHA/ACC guideline on the management of patients with lower extremity peripheral artery disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2017;135:e726-e779. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27840333
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 Gornik HL et al. ACC/AHA/AACVPR/APMA/ABC/SCAI/SVM/SVN/SVS/SIR/VESS guideline for the management of lower extremity peripheral artery disease: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2024 Jun 11;149(24):e1313-e1410. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38743805 Free article. Review. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001251
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 Mazzolai L, Teixido-Tura G, Lanzi S, et al. 2024 ESC Guidelines for the management of peripheral arterial and aortic diseases. Eur Heart J. 2024 Aug 30:ehae179. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39210722 https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae179/7738955
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