Ebola hemorrhagic fever

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Etiology

Epidemiology

  • disease of primates
  • virus is transmitted to people from wild animals & through human-to-human transmission
    • contact with blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals (WHO)
    • rarely transmitted via an airborne route[19]
    • virus not transmitted during incubation phase; virus only transmitted when patients are sick[29]
    • in Ebola-infected macaques, viable virus is detected for 7 days & viral RNA for 10 weeks after death[58]
  • fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are natural host (WHO)
  • sporadic outbreaks (Central Africa)
  • 14,383 casess & 8892 laboratory-confirmed cases as of Nov 14, 2014 with 5165 deaths [[[A3702|CDC]]]
    • 6535 cases in Liberia, 5335 cases in Sierra Leone
    • 1st case reported in Mali (Oct 2014)[43]
    • 528 cases reported in Guinea, Liberia, & Sierra Leone, with 337 deaths (case-fatality rate of 64%) (West Africa) March-June in 2014[4][6]
  • 5 distinct species (strains)
    • Zaire (1976, 1994, 1996, > 300 cases > 80% mortality)
    • Sudan (1976, 1979 Sudan, Uganda 50% fatality)
    • Tai Forest
    • Bundibugyo
    • Reston (does not affect humans)
    • Ivory Coast mentioned in a reference where Tai Forest & Bundibugyo were not
    • 3 different species of Ebolavirus have caused repeated disease outbreaks in Africa[77]
  • new strain of Ebolavirus in Guinea in 2014[5]
  • CDC urges all US residents to avoid nonessential travel to Liberia, Guinea, & Sierra Leone[7]
  • WHO declares international public health emergency over Ebola outbreak August 2014[10]
  • scope of Ebola virus (2014) vastly underestimated[12]
  • number of Ebola cases worldwide has nearly reached 5000, including some 2500 fatalities (Sept 2014)
    • half of the infections occurred Sept 2014[27]
  • an estimated 550,000 to 1.4 million Ebola infections in Sierra Leone & Liberia could occur by January 2015 ifno action is taken[28]
  • 1st confirmed case of Ebola in U.S., Texas, Sept 30, 2014; man developed symptoms 4 days after returning from Liberia
  • a doctor in New York City returning from West Africa where working with Doctors without Borders treating Ebola victims tested positive for Ebola Oct 23, 2014[42]
  • screening for Ebola to start at 5 US airports that receive 94% of persons from Ebola-endemic countries
    • New York's JFK, Washington Dulles, Chicago's O'Hare, Atlanta's Hartsfield-Jackson, & New Jersey's Newark[33]
    • persons traveling traveling from Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, & Mali will be subject to 21-day monitoring for Ebola symptoms [[[A3702|CDC]]]
    • screening to end for passengers from Mali[55]
  • a nurse's aide in Spain is believed to be the first person to contract the virus outside of Africa
    • she helped treat a missionary who died of Ebola[33]
  • from July to mid-November 2014, the CDC fielded 650 inquiries from health departments & clinicians regarding people thought to be at risk for Ebola: most were not at high risk[54]
  • Liberia declared Ebola free May 2015[65]
  • Sierra Leone Ebola free November 2015[72]
  • end of most recent outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Liberia & all known chains of transmission have been stopped in West Africa[75]
  • death from Ebola reported in Sierra Leone Jan 2016[76]
    • end of flareup in Sierra Leone March 2016[80]
  • Ebola has resurfaced in Guinea (4 deaths) March 2016[81]
  • Ebola no longer a global public health emergency[82]
  • confirmed case in Liberia April 2016[84]
  • two confirmed cases of Ebola in the Democratic Republic of Congo April-May 2012, 17 suspected cases, 3 deaths[88]
  • one case of Ebola identified in 2018 in the city of Mbandaka, which lies on the banks of the Congo River in the Democratic Republic of Congo[19]
  • Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo declared over by WHO July 24, 2018[91]
  • cluster of Ebola cases reported Democratic Republic of the Congo Aug 1, 2016[92]
  • case reported in Uganda June 2019[93]
  • confirmed cases as of June 2019 1990, deaths 1311[93]
  • Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in July 2019 (WHO)[94]
    • 2500 confirmed or probable cases in the previous year
    • 140 healthcare workers have been infected; 40 have died
    • 2 community health workers have been murdered
    • ongoing unstable security is one of the factors contributing to the outbreak[94]
  • new outbreak of Ebola in West African nation of Guinea & in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Feb 2021 (WHO)[96]

Pathology

Genetics

Clinical manifestations

Laboratory

* safety precautions in handling specimens

* Ebola Virus One-Step recalled due in inaccuracy[62]

Complications

Differential diagnosis

* much more common in travelers returning from Liberia as of June 2015[66][70]

Management

* 35 US hospitals designated as Ebola Treatment Centers Dec 2014.[53]

Comparative biology

Notes

  • people traveling from Sierra Leone, Guinea, & Liberia must enter the U.S. through one of 5 designated airports that are set up to screen for Ebola: New York's JFK, Newark, Dulles, Atlanta, and Chicago's O'Hare[41] (Oct 2014)

More general terms

Additional terms

References

  1. ↑ Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998
  2. ↑ UCLA Department of Pathology, Lecture series, Jan 7, 2002
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 World Health Organization Ebola in Uganda, July 29, 2012 http://www.who.int/csr/don/2012_07_29/en/index.html
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Physician's First Watch, March 25, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Baize S et al Emergence of Zaire Ebola Virus Disease in Guinea - Preliminary Report. N Engl J Med. April 16, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24738640 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1404505
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Dixon MG and Schafer IJ Ebola Viral Disease Outbreak - West Africa, 2014 MMWR. June 24, 2014 / 63(Early Release);1-4 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm63e0624a2.htm
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Travel Advisory. Juy 31, 2014 Ebola in Liberia http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/warning/ebola-liberia
  8. ↑ World Health Organization. Global Alert and Response (GAR) Ebola virus disease update - West Africa Disease outbreak news. August 4, 2014 http://www.who.int/csr/don/2014_08_04_ebola/en/
    World Health Organization. Global Alert and Response (GAR) Ebola virus disease update - West Africa Disease outbreak news. August 6, 2014 http://www.who.int/csr/don/2014_08_06_ebola/en/
  9. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidance for Specimen Collection, Transport, Testing, and Submission for Patients with Suspected Infection with Ebola Virus Disease. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/interim-guidance-specimen-collection-submission-patients-suspected-infection-ebola.html
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 World Health Organization. August 8, 2014 WHO Statement on the Meeting of the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee Regarding the 2014 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/ebola-20140808/en/
  11. ↑ Podolsky SH Serotherapy: Back to the Future. Ann Intern Med. Published online 12 August 2014 http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1896394
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 World Health Organization. Global Alert and Response (GAR) WHO Ebola news. August 14, 2014
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) HAN 365: CDC Ebola Update #1 http://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00365.asp
    FDA Statement. August 14, 2014 FDA warns consumers about fraudulent Ebola treatment products. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm410086.htm
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Thi EP, Mire CE, Ursic-Bedoya1 R et al Marburg virus infection in nonhuman primates: Therapeutic treatment by lipid-encapsulated siRNA. Sci Transl Med 20 August 2014: Vol. 6, Issue 250, p. 250ra116 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25143366 <Internet> http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/6/250/250ra116.full
  14. ↑ Briand S et al; Perspective. The International Ebola Emergency N Engl J Med. Aug 20, 2104 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25140855 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1409858
    Goodman JL Perspective. Studying "Secret serums" - Toward Safe, Effective Ebola Treatments. N Engl J Med. Aug 20, 2104 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25140857 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1409817
    Frieden TR et al (CDC) Perspective. Ebola 2014 - New Challenges, New Global Response and Responsibility. N Engl J Med. Aug 20, 2104 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25140858 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1409903
    Chan M (WHO) Perspective. Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa - No Early End to the Outbreak. N Engl J Med. Aug 20, 2104 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25140856 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1409859
    CDC poster explaining sequence for putting on and taking off personal protective equipment. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/pdf/ppe-poster.pdf
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidance for Environmental Infection Control in Hospitals for Ebola Virus. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/environmental-infection-control-in-hospitals.html
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Orciari Herman A and Sofair A Both U.S. Aid Workers Leave Hospital After Beating Ebola. Physician's First Watch, Aug 22, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
  16. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) HAN 367: CDC Ebola Response Update #3 http://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00367.asp
  17. ↑ World Health Organization. August 25, 2014 Unprecedented number of medical staff infected with Ebola. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/ebola/25-august-2014/en/
    Fischer Ii WA, Hynes NA, Perl TM. Protecting Health Care Workers From Ebola: Personal Protective Equipment Is Critical but Is Not Enough. Ann Intern Med. Published online 26 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25155746 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1900481
  18. ↑ World Health Organization. August 28, 2014 WHO issues roadmap to scale up international response to the Ebola outbreak in west Africa. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/ebola-roadmap/en/
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Qiu X, Wong G, Audet J et al Reversion of advanced Ebola virus disease in nonhuman primates with ZMapp. Nature. August 29, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25171469 <Internet> http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vnfv/ncurrent/full/nature13777.html
  20. ↑ Martin-Moreno JM et al Is respiratory protection appropriate in the Ebola response? The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 29 August 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25178253 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961343-X/fulltext
  21. ↑ WHO Fact Sheet Ebola haemorrhagic fever http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 World Health Organization. 5 September 2014 Statement on the WHO Consultation on potential Ebola therapies and vaccines. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/ebola-therapies-consultation/en/
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Stanley DA et al Chimpanzee adenovirus vaccine generates acute and durable protective immunity against ebolavirus challenge. Nature Medicine. August 18, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25194571 <Internet> http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nm.3702.html
  24. ↑ Jamieson DJ et al What Obstetrician-Gynecologists Should Know About Ebola: A Perspective From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Obstetrics & Gynecology. September 8, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25203368 <Internet> http://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/publishahead/What_Obstetrician_Gynecologists_Should_Know_About.99324.aspx
  25. ↑ World Health Organization Ebola situation in Liberia: non-conventional interventions needed. Situation assessment - 8 September 2014 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/ebola/8-september-2014/en/
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Breman JG and Johnson KM Ebola Then and Now N Engl J Med. September 10, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25207624 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1410540
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Young K, Fairchild DG, Di Francesco L U.N. Says $1 Billion Needed to Fight Ebola; U.S. Pledges Military Personnel NEJM Journal Watch. Sept 17, 2014 Massachusetts Medical Society (subscription needed) http://www.jwatch.org
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Meltzer MI et al Estimating the Future Number of Cases in the Ebola Epidemic - Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015 MMWR. September 23, 2014 / 63(Early Release);1-14 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su63e0923a1.htm
    WHO Ebola Response Team Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa - The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections. N Engl J Med. September 23, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25244186 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1411100
    Farrar JJ and Piot P. The Ebola emergency - immediate action, ongoing strategy. N Engl J Med 2014 Sep 23; <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25244185 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1411471
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Elia J, Fairchild DG, Sadoughi S, Di Francesco L First Ebola Case Diagnosed in U.S.- Man Traveled from Liberia to Texas. Physician's First Watch, Oct 1, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) CDC Newsroom. Press Release. Sept 30, 2014 CDC and Texas Health Department Confirm First Ebola Case Diagnosed in the U.S. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/s930-ebola-confirmed-case.html
    Young K, Sadoughi S, Saitz R Ebola Update: Contacts of Texas Patient So Far Test Negative, Children Possibly Exposed. Physician's First Watch, Oct 2, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Texas Deptartment of State Health Sevices. News Release. October 2, 2014 Texas Orders Family of Ebola Patient to Stay Home https://www.dshs.state.tx.us/news/releases/20141001.aspx
  31. ↑ World Health Organization (WHO). September 2014 Use of Convalescent Whole Blood or Plasma Collected from Patients Recovered from Ebola Virus Disease for Transfusion as an Empirical Treatment during Outbreaks. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/135591/1/WHO_HIS_SDS_2014.8_eng.pdf?ua=1
  32. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidance for Environmental Infection Control in Hospitals for Ebola Virus http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/environmental-infection-control-in-hospitals.html
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Young K, Sadough S, Saitz R 1st Patient Diagnosed with Ebola in U.S. Dies; 5 U.S. Airports to Start Screening Incoming Travelers Physician's First Watch, Oct 9, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    World Health Organization (WHO). Oct. 8, 2014 WHO: Ebola Response Roadmap Situation Report http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136020/1/roadmapsitrep_8Oct2014_eng.pdf?ua=1
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Media Statement Texas Reports Positive Test for Ebola in a Health Care Worker http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/s1012-texas-health-care-worker.html
    Press Briefing Transcript CDC update on Ebola Response, 10-13-2014 http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/t1013-ebola-reponse-update.html
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Young K, Fairchild DG, Di Francesco L Ebola Update: Case Fatality Rate Now 70% Physician's First Watch, Oct 15, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Benowitz I et al Surveillance and Preparedness for Ebola Virus Disease - New York City, 2014. MMWR. October 14, 2014 / 63(Early Release);1-3 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm63e1014a3.htm
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Young K, Sadoughi S, Saitz R. 2nd Texas Nurse with Ebola Flew on Airplane Hours Before Checking into Hospital. Physician's First Watch, Oct 16, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Media Statement. October 15, 2014 Texas Reports Positive Test for Ebola in One Additional Healthcare Worker. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/s1015-texas-second-health-care-worker.html
  37. ↑ Powder J, Yakutchik M Public health experts gather at Johns Hopkins to discuss Ebola epidemic. http://hub.jhu.edu/2014/10/14/ebola-experts-johns-hopkins
  38. ↑ NIH News. October 16, 2014 http://www.nih.gov/news/health/oct2014/od-16.htm
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Orciari Herman A, Sadoughi S New Ebola Guidance for Providers Will Mandate No Skin Showing; Rapid-Response Team in the Works. Physician's First Watch, Oct 20, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Guidance on Personal Protective Equipment To Be Used by Healthcare Workers During Management of Patients with Ebola Virus Disease in U.S. Hospitals, Including Procedures for Putting On (Donning) and Removing (Doffing). CDC guidance is current as of October 20, 2014 http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/procedures-for-ppe.html
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Texas Department of State Health Services. News Release. Oct 20, 2014 Texans Cleared From Ebola Monitoring https://www.dshs.state.tx.us/news/releases/20141020.aspx
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Young K, Fairchild DG, Di Francesco L Physician's First Watch, Oct 22, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Homeland Security. Oct. 21, 2014 Statement by Secretary Johnson on Travel Restrictions and Protective Measures to Prevent the Spread of Ebola to the United States. http://www.dhs.gov/news/2014/10/21/statement-secretary-johnson-travel-restrictions-and-protective-measures-prevent
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Press Release. Oct 22, 2014 CDC Announces Active Post-Arrival Monitoring for Travelers from Impacted Countries. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/p1022-post-arrival-monitoring.html
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Orciari Herman A, Fairchild DG NYC Doctor Tests Positive for Ebola Physician's First Watch, Oct 24, 2014 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
    Doctors without Borders. Oct 23, 2014 Statement on Returned Field Worker. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/article/statement-returned-field-worker
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 World Health Organization (WHO) Ebola situation assessment - 24 October 2014 Mali confirms its first case of Ebola http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/ebola/24-october-2014/en/
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim U.S. Guidance for Monitoring and Movement of Persons with Potential Ebola Virus Exposure. October 27, 2014 http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/exposure/monitoring-and-movement-of-persons-with-exposure.html
    Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) SHEA Supports Evidence-Based Measures to Prevent Ebola Transmission, Opposes Mandatory Quarantine for Healthcare Personnel. October 26, 2014 http://www.shea-online.org/JournalNews/PressRoom/PressView/ArticleId/318/SHEA-Supports-Evidence-Based-Measures-to-Prevent-Ebola-Transmission-Opposes-Mandatory-Quarantine-for.aspx
    Drazen JM et al Ebola and Quarantine. N Engl J Med. October 27, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25347231 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe1413139
  45. ↑ Peacock G et al. Ebola virus disease and children: What pediatric health care professionals need to know. JAMA Pediatr 2014 Oct 17 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25325785 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1918461
  46. ↑ World Health Organization Ebola Response Roadmap. Situation Report. Oct 29, 2014 http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/137376/1/roadmapsitrep_29Oct2014_eng.pdf
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 World Health Organization. News Release. Oct 31, 2014 WHO updates personal protective equipment guidelines for Ebola response. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/ebola-ppe-guidelines/en/
  48. ↑ American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Practice Advisory: Nov 3, 2014 Care of Obstetric Patients During an Ebola Virus Outbreak. http://www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/Statements-and-Advisories/2014/Care-of-Obstetric-Patients-During-an-Ebola-Virus-Outbreak
  49. ↑ Texas Reaches Ebola Monitoring Endpoint Texas Department of Sate Health Services. News Release/ Nov. 6, 2014 http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/news/releases/20141106.aspx
  50. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2014 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa - Case Counts http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014-west-africa/case-counts.html
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 World Health Organization (WHO). 26 November 2014 Ebola virus in semen of men who have recovered from Ebola virus disease. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/rtis/ebola-virus-semen/en/
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Ledgerwood JE et al Chimpanzee Adenovirus Vector Ebola Vaccine - Preliminary Report. N Engl J Med. Nov 25, 2014 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1410863
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Current Ebola Treatment Centers. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/current-treatment-centers.html
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidance for Preparing Ebola Treatment Centers http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/hcp/preparing-ebola-treatment-centers.html
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Karwowski MP et al Clinical Inquiries Regarding Ebola Virus Disease Received by CDC - United States, July 9-November 15, 2014. MMWR. Early Release. December 5, 2014 / 63(Early Release);1-5 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm63e1205a1.htm
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Enhanced Airport Entry Screening To End for Travelers from Mali to the United States. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0105-enhanced-airport-screening.html
  56. ↑ World Health Organization Ebola Situation Report - 28 January 2015 http://apps.who.int/ebola/en/ebola-situation-report/situation-reports/ebola-situation-report-28-january-2015
  57. ↑ 57.00 57.01 57.02 57.03 57.04 57.05 57.06 57.07 57.08 57.09 57.10 57.11 57.12 57.13 57.14 57.15 57.16 57.17 Levine AC, Shetty PP, Henwood PC, Sabeti P, Katz JT, Vaidya A. Interactive medical case. A Liberian health care worker with fever. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jan 29;372(5):e7. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25629759 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMimc1414101
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Prescott J et al. Postmortem stability of Ebola virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2015 Feb 11 http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/21/5/15-0041_article
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Brooks M WHO Clears 15-Minute, Easy-to-Use Test for Ebola. Medscape Oncology. February 20, 2015 http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/840101
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Lai L, Davey R, Beck A et al Emergency Postexposure Vaccination With Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Vectored Ebola Vaccine After Needlestick. JAMA. Published online March 05, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25742465 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2195001
    Geisbert TW Emergency Treatment for Exposure to Ebola Virus. The Need to Fast-Track Promising Vaccines. JAMA. Published online March 05, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25742306 <Internet> http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2195000
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 World Health Organization. April 4, 2014 Sexual transmission of the Ebola Virus: evidence and knowledge gaps. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/rtis/ebola-virus-semen/en/
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 FDA Safety Alert. April 23, 2015 Ebola Virus One-Step Test Kits by LuSys Laboratories: Class I Recall - Not Cleared for Marketing. http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm444327.htm
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 63.3 Christie A, Davies-Wayne DJ, Cordier-Lasalle T et al Possible Sexual Transmission of Ebola Virus - Liberia, 2015 MMWR. May 1, 2015 / 64(Early Release);1-3 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm64e0501a1.htm
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Varkey JB et al Persistence of Ebola Virus in Ocular Fluid during Convalescence. N Engl J Med. May 7, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25950269 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1500306
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 World Health Organization (WHO) WHO statement. 9 May 2015 The Ebola outbreak in Liberia is over. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2015/liberia-ends-ebola/en/
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Health Advisory. June 19, 2015 Clinical Considerations for the Evaluation of Ill Travelers from Liberia to the United States. http://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00381.asp
  67. ↑ Liddell AM, Davey RT Jr, Mehta AK et al. Characteristics and clinical management of a cluster of 3 patients with Ebola virus disease, including the first domestically acquired cases in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Jul 21;163(2):81-90 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25961438
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 World Health Organization (WHO). News Release. Aug 7, 2015 An emergency within an emergency: caring for Ebola survivors. http://www.afro.who.int/en/sierra-leone/press-materials/item/7908-an-emergency-within-an-emergency-caring-for-ebola-survivors.html
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Jacobs M et al Post-exposure prophylaxis against Ebola virus disease with experimental antiviral agents: a case-series of health-care workers. Lancet Infectious Disease. Aug 25, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26321189 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099%2815%2900228-5/abstract
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Biddinger PD et al Case 28-2015 - A 32-Year-Old Man with Fever, Headache, and Myalgias after Traveling from Liberia. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:1060-1067. September 10, 2015 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26352818
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Deen GF, Knust B, Broutet N et al Ebola RNA Persistence in Semen of Ebola Virus Disease Survivors
    Preliminary Report. N Eng J Med. October 14, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26465681 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1511410
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 World Health Oranization (WHO) News Release. Nov 7, 2015 WHO commends Sierra Leone for stopping Ebola virus transmission. http://www.afro.who.int/en/sierra-leone/press-materials/item/8139-who-commends-sierra-leone-for-stopping-ebola-virus-transmission.html
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 van Griensven J et al. Evaluation of convalescent plasma for Ebola virus disease in Guinea. N Engl J Med 2016 Jan 7; 374:33 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26735992 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1511812
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Gignoux E et al. Effect of artesunate-amodiaquine on mortality related to Ebola virus disease. N Engl J Med 2016 Jan 7; 374:23 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26735991 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1504605
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 World Health Oranization (WHO) News Release. Jan 14, 2016 Latest Ebola outbreak over in Liberia; West Africa is at zero, but new flare-ups are likely to occur. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/ebola-zero-liberia/en/
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Fofana U Dozens feared exposed as Sierra Leone confirms new Ebola death. Reuters. Jan 15, 2016 http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/dozens-feared-exposed-as-sierra-leone-confirms-new-ebola-death/ar-BBofp65) World Health Oranization (WHO). News Release. Jan 15, 2016 New Ebola case in Sierra Leone. WHO continues to stress risk of more flare-ups. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/new-ebola-case/en/
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 lyak AI et al. Cross-reactive and potent neutralizing antibody responses in human survivors of natural Ebolavirus infection. Cell 2016 Jan 28; 164:392. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26806128
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Uyeki TM et al. Clinical management of Ebola virus disease in the United States and Europe. N Engl J Med 2016 Feb 18; 374:636 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26886522 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1504874
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 Seroka R, Uher M Survivors of Ebola Virus Disease Have Persistent Neurologic D eficits AAN 68th ANNUAL MEETING ABSTRACT https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/GetDigitalAsset/12003
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 World Health Oranization (WHO) Statement March 17, 2016 WHO statement on end of Ebola flare-up in Sierra Leone. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-flare-ebola-sierra-leone/en/
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). Emergencies preparedness, response. March 18, 2016 New Ebola cases confirmed in Guinea as WHO warns of more possible flare ups. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/new-ebola-cases-confirmed-guinea/en/
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). March 29, 2016 Statement on the 9th meeting of the IHR Emergency Committee regarding the Ebola outbreak in West Africa. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/
    WHO Director-General briefs media on outcome of Ebola Emergency Committee http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/ihr-emergency-committee-ebola/en/
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). March 2016 WHO coordinating vaccination of contacts to contain Ebola flare-up in Guinea. http://www.who.int/features/2016/ebola-contacts-vaccination/en/
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). April 1, 2016 New positive case of Ebola virus disease confirmed in Liberia. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/liberia-ebola/en/
  85. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Guidance for U.S. Laboratories for Managing and Testing Routine Clinical Specimens When There is a Concern About Ebola Virus Disease. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/healthcare-us/laboratories/safe-specimen-management.html
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 Corti D et al. Protective monotherapy against lethal Ebola virus infection by a potently neutralizing antibody. Science 2016 Mar 18; 351:1339 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26917593
    Warren TK et al. Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys. Nature 2016 Mar 17; 531:381 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26934220
  87. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) CDC's Response to the 2014-2016 Ebola Epidemic - West Africa and United States. MMWR Supplements: Current Volume (65). July 8, 2016 / No. 3 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/ind2016_su.html
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). May 12, 2017 Statement on Ebola in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2017/ebola-drc/en/
  89. ↑ World Health Oranization (WHO). May 17, 2018 WHO concerned as one Ebola case confirmed in urban area of Democratic Republic of the Congo. http://www.who.int/news-room/detail/17-05-2018-who-concerned-as-one-ebola-case-confirmed-in-urban-area-of-democratic-republic-of-the-congo
  90. ↑ World Health Oranization (WHO). May 18, 2018 Statement on the 1st meeting of the IHR Emergency Committee regarding the Ebola outbreak in 2018. http://www.who.int/news-room/detail/18-05-2018-statement-on-the-1st-meeting-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-regarding-the-ebola-outbreak-in-2018
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). July 24, 2018 Ebola outbreak in DRC ends: WHO calls for international efforts to stop other deadly outbreaks in the country. http://www.who.int/news-room/detail/24-07-2018-ebola-outbreak-in-drc-ends-who-calls-for-international-efforts-to-stop-other-deadly-outbreaks-in-the-country
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 World Health Oranization (WHO). Aug 4, 2018 Ebola virus disease - Democratic Republic of the Congo. http://www.who.int/csr/don/4-august-2018-ebola-drc/en/
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 93.2 Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. CDC Press Release. June 11, 2019 First case of Ebola virus disease diagnosed in Uganda Risk of Ebola virus transmission in the United States remains very low. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2019/p0611-first-ebola-case.html
    Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. CDC Press Release. June 12, 2019 CDC Activates Emergency Operations Center for Ebola Outbreak in Eastern DRC. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2019/p0612-ebola-operations-center.html
    World Health Organization (WHO). June 11, 2019 Ebola situation reports: Democratic Republic of the Congo
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 World Health Oranization (WHO), July 17, 2019 Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/17-07-2019-ebola-outbreak-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo-declared-a-public-health-emergency-of-international-concern
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAD). Independent Monitoring Board Recommends Early Termination of Ebola Therapeutics Trial in DRC Because of Favorable Results with Two of Four Candidates. NIAD News Release. Aug 12, 2019 https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/independent-monitoring-board-recommends-early-termination-ebola-therapeutics-trial-drc
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 World Health Organization (WHO) New Ebola outbreak declared in Guinea. WHO News Release. Feb 14, 2021 https://www.afro.who.int/news/new-ebola-outbreak-declared-guinea
  97. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) Information for Clinicians in U.S. Healthcare Settings. last reviewed May 24, 2016, Re-released March 2021 https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/clinicians/evd/clinicians.html
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 FDA News Release. Dec 19, 2019 First FDA-approved vaccine for the prevention of Ebola virus disease, marking a critical milestone in public health preparedness and response. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/first-fda-approved-vaccine-prevention-ebola-virus-disease-marking-critical-milestone-public-health
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 PREVAC Study Team Randomized Trial of Vaccines for Zaire Ebola Virus Disease. N Engl J Med. 2022. Dec 14 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36516078 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2200072
  100. ↑ Jacob ST, Crozier I, Fischer WA 2nd et al Ebola virus disease Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2020 Feb 20;6(1):13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32080199 PMCID: PMC7223853 Free PMC article
  101. ↑ N Engl J Med: Ebola Outbreak http://www.nejm.org/page/ebola-outbreak
  102. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever. Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/
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