risk factors for breast cancer & management of high-risk women
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Etiology
- age > 50 (risk increases with age)
- personal history
- family history
- breast cancer
- cancer family syndrome (i.e. Li Fraumeni syndrome)
- BRCA1 & BRCA2 gene mutations
- BRCA mutation negative patients in families with BRCA mutations
- defects in BRIP1
- variations in PALB2
- family history of prostate cancer[38] (RR=1.14)
- genetic information adds modestly to risk prediction[18]
- seemingly conflicting data regarding childbirth
- nulliparity or low parity, age > 30 1st birth
- risk increases in the 5 years following childbirth & remains elevated for 20 years[42]
- nulliparity or low parity, age > 30 1st birth
- early menarche
- late menopause
- exposure to ionizing radiation
- radiation therapy in women < 30 years of age
- mantle cell radiation for Hodgkin's disease[3]
- mediastinal radiation therapy (risk begins within 8 years)[3]
- diagnostic radiotion exposure in women with BRCA1 mutation or BRCA2 mutation increase risk of breast cancer (RR=1.9-3.8)[26]
- radiation therapy in women < 30 years of age
- alcohol[2][3][34][35]
- smoking, < 18 years of age & heavy smoking (40 pack years)[21]
- sedentary lifestyle ?[2][20]
- postmenopausal obesity[3]
- postmenopausal women with normal BMI but excess fat[41]
- tall stature ?[3]
- hormone replacement therapy[3][22][49]
- risk increases with duration of HRT
- risk greatest with estrogen-progestin combinations
- risk declines after cessation of HRT; returns to baseline in 3 years
- use of oral contraceptives ?[3]
- long-term use of calcium channel blocker associated with > 2-fold increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women[31]
- high dietary fat consumption ?[3]
- low fat diet (20% fat) of no benefit (see Women's Health Initiative: Dietary Modification Trial)
- high red meat consumption in early adulthood (RR=1.2)[36]
- a combination of legumes, poultry, nuts & fish may reduce the risk of breast cancer[36]
- upper socioeconomic class[4]
- blacks at higher risk of breast cancer with poor prognosis[11]
- overnight shift work/awake at night ?[5]
- postulated to be due to diminished melatonin secretion
- vitamin D deficiency[3]
- increased breast density[3]
- ductal hyperplasia, lobular hyperplasia
- persistent vasomotor symptoms (RR= 1.13)[43]
- antibiotic use? (see antibiotics & risk of breast cancer)
- hair dyes & chemical straightener use may increase breast cancer risk[47]
- aspirin use contoversial
- aspirin use associated with reduced risk of breast cancer[6]
- odds ratio 0.8 for weekly use; 0.72 for daily use
- aspirin use associated with diminished mortality in women diagnosed with breast cancer[17]
- low dose aspirin does not reduce risk of breast cancer or breast cancer recurrence[50]
- aspirin use associated with reduced risk of breast cancer[6]
- ibuprofen associated with reduced risk of breast cancer but association weaker than that for aspirin (which is controversial)[6]
- caffeine consumption associated with reduced risk in women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations
- mushrooms, especially in combination with green tea reduces risk in Chinese women[14]
- fruit intake during adolecence diminishes risk[39]
- reduced fat, increased fruit, vegetables, & grains reduces breast cancer mortality (RR=0.82 vs usual diet)
- bisphosphonate use associated with diminished risk (30%)[16]
- unclear relationship of morning person vs night-owl[46]
NOT risk factors:
- progestin-only contraceptives[7]
- high-temperature cooking methods for meat (grilling, barbecuing, pan-frying)[15]
- fruit or vegetable intake in adulthood[39]
Benefit/risk
- 22 high-risk women needed to be treated with tamoxifen for 5 years to prevent 1 breast cancer over 20 years[37]
Radiology
- women with BRCA gene mutation should begin breast cancer screening at age 25 with MRI & mammography beginning at age 30 years
- screening MRI &/or mammography at 25 years or 8 years after completion of mediastinal radiation therapy whichever comes last[3]
Management
- women with a strong family history of breast cancer should be referred for genetic counseling[3]
- chemoprophylaxis
- chemoprophylaxis with tamoxifen:
- indications:
- women age 35-60 years with breast cancer risk > 1.66% within 6 years bases on Gail model[3][8][9]*
- women > 35 years of age with 5 year risk of breast cancer > 1.7% or with lobular carcinoma in situ or atypical ductal hyperplasia[3]
- 20 mg QD for 5 years decreases of breast cancer by ~50%
- 123 vs 224 cases, 89 vs 175 (invasive breast CA)
- risk of thromboembolism increased (35 vs 22 cases)
- risk of pulmonary embolus increased (18 vs 6 cases)
- risk of endometrial cancer increased (36 vs 16 cases)
- increased risk of cataracts[27]
- indications:
- prophylaxis with raloxifene
- for use after menopause (see tamoxifen for indications)
- as effective as tamoxifen for reducing risk of invasive breast cancer
- slightly less effective than tamoxifen for reducing risk of noninvasive breast cancer
- increased risk of thromboembolism[27]
- tamoxifen & raloxifene reduce the incidence of primary hormone receptor positive invasive breast cancer by ~50% compared with placebo[3][27]
- associated risk 7.0% vs 9.8% with tamoxifen over 16 years[37]
- all-cause & cancer-specific mortality are not reduced [3, 27]
- increased mortality with tamoxifen not statistically significant[37]
- USPSTF supports recommendation for tamoxifen or raloxifene prophylaxis in high-risk postmenopausal women[32]
- prophylactic aromatase inhibitor[44]
- exemestane (Aromasin) associated ~65% reduction in invasive hormone receptor- positive breast cancer in postmenopausal women at moderately increased risk[23]
- anastrozole decreases risk of breast cancer in high risk women (RR=0.5 over 5 years, absolute risk reduction 2%, number needed to treat = 50)[33]
- chemoprophylaxis with tamoxifen:
- surgical prophylaxis
- bilateral prophylactic mastectomy
- indications:
- women with a family history of
- multiple premenopausal breast cancer
- bilateral breast cancer
- BRAC1 or BRAC2 gene mutation[19]
- p53 gene mutation (Li-Fraumeni syndrome)
- women with a family history of
- decreases risk of breast cancer > 90%[3]
- indications:
- prophylactic salpingo-oophorectectomy[6][19]
- BRAC1 or BRAC2 gene mutation & have completed child-bearing
- reduces risk of ovarian cancer 80%[3]
- bilateral prophylactic mastectomy
- marine omega-3 fatty acids may be associated with lower risk of breast cancer (14%)[28]
- weight loss & maintenance of lower weight in middle-aged women lowers risk for postmenopausal breast cancer[48]
Notes
* for risk calculator (Gail Model), see[13]
More general terms
Additional terms
References
- ↑ Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 29, 408-410
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Northern California Kaiser Permanente Videoconference, Nov. 11, 1999
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 1998, 2006, 2012, 2015. 2018, 2021.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mayo Internal Medicine Board Review, 1998-99, Prakash UBS (ed) Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1998, pg 665-670
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Journal Watch 21(23):187, 2001 Schernhammer ES et al Rotating night shifts and risk of breast cancer in women participating in the nurses' health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 93:1563, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11604480
Davis S et al Night shift work, light at night, and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 93:1557, 2001 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11604479 - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Journal Watch 24(13):101, 2004 Terry MB, Gammon MD, Zhang FF, Tawfik H, Teitelbaum SL, Britton JA, Subbaramaiah K, Dannenberg AJ, Neugut AI. Association of frequency and duration of aspirin use and hormone receptor status with breast cancer risk. JAMA. 2004 May 26;291(20):2433-40. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15161893
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Journal Watch 24(13):102, 2004 Strom BL, Berlin JA, Weber AL, Norman SA, Bernstein L, Burkman RT, Daling JR, Deapen D, Folger SG, Malone KE, Marchbanks PA, Simon MS, Ursin G, Weiss LK, Spirtas R. Absence of an effect of injectable and implantable progestin-only contraceptives on subsequent risk of breast cancer. Contraception. 2004 May;69(5):353-60. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15105056
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Prescriber's Letter 9(9):50 2002
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, Cecchini RS, Cronin WM, Robidoux A, Bevers TB, Kavanah MT, Atkins JN, Margolese RG, Runowicz CD, James JM, Ford LG, Wolmark N. Tamoxifen for the prevention of breast cancer: current status of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005 Nov 16;97(22):1652-62. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16288118
- ↑ Internal Medicine World Report 2006; 21(2) Fracheboud J et al Seventy-five years is an appropriate upper age limit for population-based mammography screening. Int J Cancer 2006; 118:103 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16287064
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Smith-Bindman R, Miglioretti DL, Lurie N, Abraham L, Barbash RB, Strzelczyk J, Dignan M, Barlow WE, Beasley CM, Kerlikowske K. Does utilization of screening mammography explain racial and ethnic differences in breast cancer? Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 18;144(8):541-53. Summary for patients in: Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 18;144(8):I18. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618951
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Smith A et al, Phenocopies in BRCA1 and BRCA2 families: Evidence for modifier genes and implications for screening? J Med Genet 2006, Nov 1 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17079251
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Breast cancer Risk Assessment Tool (Gail Model) An Interactive tool for measuring the risk of invasive breast cancer, National Cancer Institute http://www.cancer.gov/bcrisktool/
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Zhang M et al Dietary intakes of mushrooms and green tea combine to reduce the risk of breast cancer in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2009 Mar 15; 124:1404. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19048616
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kabat GC et al Meat intake and meat preparation in relation to risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Int J Cancer 2009 May 15; 124:2430. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19165862
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Cardwell CR et al Exposure to oral bisphosphonates and risk of cancer. Int J Cancer. 2011 Dec 8. doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1002/ijc.27389 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22161552
Monsees GM et al Bisphosphonate use after estrogen receptor-positive breas cancer and risk of contralateral breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011 Dec 7;103(23):1752-60. Epub 2011 Oct 21. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22021667
Chlebowski RT. Bisphosphonates and breast cancer incidence and recurrence. Breast Dis. 2011 Dec 5. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22142660 - ↑ 17.0 17.1 Holmes MD et al Aspirin intake and survival after breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2010, 29: <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20159825 <Internet> http://jco.ascopubs.org/cgi/reprint/JCO.2009.22.7918v1
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Wacholder S et al Performance of Common Genetic Variants in Breast-Cancer Risk Models N Engl J Med 362:986-993 March 18, 2010 Number 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20237344 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/362/11/986
Devilee P and Rookus MA A Tiny Step Closer to Personalized Risk Prediction for Breast Cancer N Engl J Med 362:1043-1045 March 18, 2010 Number 11 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20237351 <Internet> http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/362/11/1043 - ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Domchek SM et al, Association of Risk-Reducing Surgery in BRCA1 or BRCA2 Mutation Carriers With Cancer Risk and Mortality JAMA. 2010;304(9):967-975 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20810374 <Internet> http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/304/9/967
Esserman L and Kaklamani V Lessons Learned From Genetic Testing JAMA. 2010;304(9):1011-1012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20810382 <Internet> http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/304/9/1011
Rebbeck TR, Lynch HT, Neuhausen SL et al Prophylactic oophorectomy in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. N Engl J Med. 2002 May 23;346(21):1616-22 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12023993 - ↑ 20.0 20.1 Eliassen AH et al Physical activity and risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 2010 Oct 25; 170:1758 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20975025
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Xue f; Willet WC; Rosner BA et al Cigarette Smoking and the Incidence of Breast Cancer Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(2):125-133 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21263102 <Internet> http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/171/2/125
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Beral V et al Breast Cancer Risk in Relation to the Interval Between Menopause and Starting Hormone Therapy J Natl Cancer Inst 2011;103:296-305 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21278356 <Internet> http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/jnci/press_releases/beraldjq527.pdf
Chlebowski RT and Anderson GL The Influence of Time From Menopause and Mammography on Hormone Therapy-Related Breast Cancer Risk Assessment J Natl Cancer Inst 2011; Jan 28 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21278357 <Internet> http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/01/28/jnci.djq561.full.pdf+html - ↑ 23.0 23.1 Goss PE et al Exemestane for Breast-Cancer Prevention in Postmenopausal Women N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2381-91. Epub 2011 Jun 4. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21639806 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1103507#t=articleTop
- ↑ Chen WY et al Moderate Alcohol Consumption During Adult Life, Drinking Patterns, and Breast Cancer Risk JAMA. 2011;306(17):1884-1890 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22045766 <Internet> http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/306/17/1884.short
Narod SA Alcohol and Risk of Breast Cancer JAMA. 2011;306(17):1920-1921 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22045772 <Internet> http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/306/17/1920 - ↑ 25.0 25.1 Kurian AW et al. Breast cancer risk for noncarriers of family-specific BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations: Findings from the Breast Cancer Family Registry. J Clin Oncol 2011 Oct 31 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22042950 <Internet> http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2011/11/03/JCO.2010.34.4440
Robson M. Do women remain at risk even if they do not inherit a familial BRCA 1/2 mutation? J Clin Oncol 2011 Oct 31 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22042956 <Internet> http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2011/10/31/JCO.2011.37.6483 - ↑ 26.0 26.1 Pijpe A et al. Exposure to diagnostic radiation and risk of breast cancer among carriers of BRCA1/2 mutations: Retrospective cohort study (GENE-RAD-RISK). BMJ 2012 Sep 6; 345:e5660 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22956590
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Physician's First Watch, April 16, 2013 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Nelson HD et al Use of Medications to Reduce Risk for Primary Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 16 April 2013;158(8):604-614 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23588749 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1676456 - ↑ 28.0 28.1 Zheng J-S et al Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2013;346:f3706 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23814120 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f3706
- ↑ Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL et al Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998 Sep 16;90(18):1371-88. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9747868
- ↑ Smith KL, Isaacs C. Management of women at increased risk for hereditary breast cancer. Breast Dis. 2006-2007;27:51-67. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17917140
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Li CI, Daling JR, Tang MT et al Use of Antihypertensive Medications and Breast Cancer Risk Among Women Aged 55 to 74 Years. JAMA Intern Med. August 5, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23921840 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1723871
Coogan PF Calcium-Channel Blockers and Breast Cancer.A Hypothesis Revived. JAMA Intern Med. August 5, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23921818 <Internet> http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1723870 - ↑ 32.0 32.1 Moyer VA et al Medications for Risk Reduction of Primary Breast Cancer in Women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. Published online 24 September 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24061472 <Internet> http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1740758
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Cuzick J et al Anastrozole for prevention of breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women (IBIS-II): an international, double- blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 12 December 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24333009 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2813%2962292-8/abstract
Cameron DA Breast cancer chemoprevention: little progress in practice? The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 12 December 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24333008 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2813%2962555-6/fulltext - ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Geriatric Review Syllabus, 8th edition (GRS8) Durso SC and Sullivan GN (eds) American Geriatrics Society, 2013
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Singletary KW, Gapstur SM. Alcohol and breast cancer: review of epidemiologic and experimental evidence and potential mechanisms. JAMA. 2001 Nov 7;286(17):2143-51. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11694156
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Farvid MS et al. Dietary protein sources in early adulthood and breast cancer incidence: Prospective cohort study. BMJ 2014 Jun 10; 348:g3437 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24916719 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g3437
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Cuzick J et al Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: extended long-term follow-up of the IBIS-I breast cancer prevention trial. The Lancet Oncology, Early Online Publication, 11 December 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25497694 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470-2045%2814%2971171-4/fulltext
Chlebowski RT IBIS-I tamoxifen update: maturity brings questions. The Lancet Oncology, Early Online Publication, 11 December 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25497695 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470-2045%2814%2971184-2/fulltext - ↑ 38.0 38.1 Beebe-Dimmer JL et al Familial clustering of breast and prostate cancer and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the Women's Health Initiative Study. Cancer. March 9, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25754547 <Internet> http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.29075/abstract
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 Farvid MS, Chen WY, Michels KB et al Fruit and vegetable consumption in adolescence and early adulthood and risk of breast cancer: population based cohort study. BMJ 2016;353:i2343 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27170029 Free full text <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/353/bmj.i2343
Dam MK, Hvidtfeldt UA, Tjonneland A et al Five year change in alcohol intake and risk of breast cancer and coronary heart disease among postmenopausal women: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2016;353:i2314 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27169583 Free full text <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/353/bmj.i2314
Key TJ, Reeves GK Alcohol, diet, and risk of breast cancer. BMJ 2016;353:i2503 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27170004 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/353/bmj.i2503 - ↑ Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK, Anderson GL et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and breast cancer mortality in the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol 2017 Sep 1; 35:2919. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28654363
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Iyengar NM, Arthur R, Manson JE et al Association of Body Fat and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women With Normal Body Mass Index. A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial and Observational Study. JAMA Oncol. Published online December 6, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30520976 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/fullarticle/2717235
Pimentel I, Lohmann AE, Goodwin PJ. Normal Weight Adiposity and Postmenopausal Breast Cancer Risk. JAMA Oncol. Published online December 6, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30520995 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology/article-abstract/2717230 - ↑ 42.0 42.1 Nichols HB, Schoemaker MJ, Cai J et al Breast Cancer Risk After Recent Childbirth: A Pooled Analysis of 15 Prospective Studies. Ann Intern Med. 2018. Dec 11. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30534999 <Internet> http://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2718682/breast-cancer-risk-after-recent-childbirth-pooled-analysis-15-prospective
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Chlebowski RT, Mortimer JE, Crandall CJ et al Persistent vasomotor symptoms and breast cancer in the Women's Health Initiative. Menopause. Dec 28, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30601454 https://journals.lww.com/menopausejournal/Abstract/publishahead/Persistent_vasomotor_symptoms_and_breast_cancer_in.97437.aspx
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) Draft Recommendation Statement Breast Cancer: Medication Use to Reduce Risk https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/breast-cancer-medications-for-risk-reduction1
Draft Evidence Review Draft Evidence Review for Breast Cancer: Medication Use to Reduce Risk https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-evidence-review/breast-cancer-medications-for-risk-reduction1 - ↑ 45.0 45.1 Sinclair J, McCann M, Sheldon E, et al The acceptability of addressing alcohol consumption as a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer: a mixed method study within breast screening services and symptomatic breast clinics. BMJ Open. 2019 Jun 17;9(6):e027371 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31209091 Free Article https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/6/e027371
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Richmond RC, Anderson EL, Dashti HS et al. Investigating causal relations between sleep traits and risk of breast cancer in women: Mendelian randomisation study. BMJ 2019 Jun 26; 365:l2327. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31243001 Free Article https://www.bmj.com/content/365/bmj.l2327
Schernhammer ES. Larks, owls, and breast cancer. BMJ 2019 Jun 26; 365:l4267. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31242993 https://www.bmj.com/content/365/bmj.l4267 - ↑ 47.0 47.1 Eberle CE Hair dye and chemical straightener use and breast cancer risk in a large US population of black and white women. Int J Cancer. Dec 3, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31797377 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ijc.32738
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Teras LR, Patel AV, Wang M et al Sustained weight loss and risk of breast cancer in women >= 50 years: a pooled analysis of prospective data. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Dec 17, 2019 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31845728 https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jnci/djz226/5675519
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Vinogradova Y et al Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer: nested case-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases BMJ 2020;371:m3873 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33115755 https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m3873
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Leiser M Low-dose aspirin does not reduce breast cancer risk. Helio. Oct 18, 2022 https://www.healio.com/news/hematology-oncology/20221018/lowdose-aspirin-does-not-reduce-breast-cancer-risk
Lawrence R Daily aspirin use fails to reduce risk for breast cancer recurrence. Helio. Feb 15, 2022 https://www.healio.com/news/hematology-oncology/20220215/daily-aspirin-use-fails-to-reduce-risk-for-breast-cancer-recurrence