attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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Introduction
ADHD is a commonly used acronym for Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Classification
- childhood & adult onset forms may represent 2 distinct clinical entities[47]
Etiology
- television > 3 1/2 hours/day may increase risk[6]
- digital media activities several times daily (chatting, gaming) increase risk for developing ADHD[62]
- food additives may increase risk[12]
- consumption of sweetened beverages by children & adolescents may increase risk of hyperactivity/inattention behaviors[39]
- in utero exposure to acetaminophen may increase risk[35][54]
- sleep disorder ?[37]
- attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms may mask underlying autism in young children[42]
- maternal mental health disorder[51]
- traumatic brain injury (TBI) among children 3-7 years of age at the time of TBI
- hypertension during pregnancy[61]
- maternal autoimmune disease including type 1 diabetes, psoriasis, & rheumatic heart disease increase risk (RR=1.27 boys, RR=1.36 girls)[70]
- younger children in a school grade cohort at higher risk[65]
- not risk factors
- maternal antidepressant use during pregnancy[51]*
- 1st trimester antidepressant use not associated with increased risk of ADHD in offspring[49]
- maternal antidepressant use during pregnancy[51]*
* maternal mental health may be linked to ADHD in offspring[51]
Epidemiology
- 8-16% of children[4]; 3-5%[7]; 9%[13]
- 4 million cases in US[20]
- most children have comordid conditions[20]
- most late onset associated with cormorbid condition including mood disorders & substance abuse[56]
- youngest children in a school grade may be more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD & to receive treatment[45]
- 60% of cases continue into adulthood[8]
- late onset = age 10-25 years[56]
- prevalence of ADHD in adults has increased 0.43%-0.96% from 2007-2016[69]
Genetics
- breakpoint in gene for Na+/H+ exchanger 9 inversion inv(3)(p14:q21),inversion disrupts DOCK3 & SLC9A9
- intron variant in GIT1 associated with ADHD[21]
- associated with variations in CACNA1C & CACNB2[29]
- CNTN4 gene mutation (contactin-4), present in 19% of adolescents with ADHD[57]
Clinical manifestations
- snoring in 22% vs 12% of controls[3]
- daytime sleepiness
- inability to organize personal life & school work
- inability to complete projects, chores & homework
- trouble paying attention to & responding to details (inattention)
- hyperactivity, fidgeting
- impulsivity, excessive vocalization
- onset before 7 years of age[18]
Laboratory
- serum ferritin levels may be low (< 30 ng/mL) despite normal hemoglobin & serum iron[9]
Diagnostic procedures
- ECG if prescribing stimulant & there are concerns about congenital heart defects[14]
Complications
- substance abuse (HR=6)[25]
- long term combined use of stimulants & opiates common[65]
- increased risk for premature death (RR=2.6)[38]
- increased risk of accidential injury (RR=1.3)[41]
- increased risk of automobile accidents may be reduced by pharmacologic therapy[50]; not reduced[52]
- increased risk for psychiatric comorbidities[48]
- oppositional defiant disorder (42% vs 5%)
- conduct disorder (13% vs 1%)
- anxiety disorder (38% vs 14%)
- depression (10% vs 3%)[48]
- adult ADHD ia associated with an increased risk for dementia (RR=2.8-3.6)[74]
- vascular dementia most likely dementia type[76]
- youngest classmates may be misdiagnosed with ADHD[55]
- increased risk to teenage pregnancy (RR=5)[68]
- increased risk of keratoconus in males due to excessive eye rubbing[75]
- disease interaction(s) of ADHD with epilepsy & febrile seizures
- disease interaction(s) of ADHD with autism
- disease interaction(s) of ADHD with PTSD
- disease interaction(s) of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with dementia
Management
- cognitive behavioral therapy
- 1st line treatment in children age 4-5[22]
- parent behavioral training more effective than methylphenidate in preschool children at risk for ADHD[31]
- for use in conjunction with pharmacotherapy in older children[22]
- behavioral sleep intervention[37]
- just over 50% of affected children receive psychological services[46]
- stimulant therapy
- avoid in patients with history of substance abuse; use atomoxetine[18]
- methylphenidate*
- reduces risk of substance abuse (16% vs 42%)[5]
- may improve symptoms of ADHD in children & adolescents[43]
- may improve classroom behavior in children with ADHD[72]
- zinc sulfate 55 mg (15 mg elemental Zn+2) allegedly improves effectiveness of methylphenidate[7]
- more effective than atomoxetine in children[15]
- drug of choice for children (<= 12 weeks of therapy)[63]
- amphetamine
- drug of choice for adults (<= 12 weeks of therapy)[63]
- Adderall XR* 20 mg PO QD[8]
- dextroamphetamine* also useful, but not FDA approved[8]
- drug of choice for adults (<= 12 weeks of therapy)[63]
- stimulants improve IQ scores[11]
- stimulant use delays growth in boys, but does not affect adult height[36]
- simulants reduce risk of accidental injury in ADHD children to risk similar to that of normal children[41]
- stimulants reduce emergency department visits in ADHD children[41]
- safety issues of stimulants under investigation;[16]
- long-term effects of stimulants on brain development not known[40]
- concern for unexplained sudden death
- no increase in risk of sudden death[23]
- no increase in cardiovascular risk (see ADHD medication)
- potential risk of cardiac arrest & tachyarrhythmias[71]
- parents should not stop a child's stimulant medication
- avoid stimulants in patients with serious arrhythmias, symptomatic heart disease, or recent cardiovascular event
- management of stimulant side effects[30]
- atomoxetine* (Strattera)
- preferred over stimulants in patients with a history of substance abuse[18]
- 40-100 mg QD works well in adults[8]
- 1/2 of patients who do not respond to methylphenidate will respond to atomoxetine[15]
- viloxazine (Qelbree) may be more effective than atomoxetine[73]
- other agents
- bupropion or venlafaxine may be useful[8]
- guanfacine used as 2nd line agent, but may be no better than placebo[44]
- frequently used substances WITHOUT proven benefit
- Efalex Focus
- Pedi-Active ADD
- Kid's Companion Attention/Memory Formula
- essential fatty acids
- phosphatidylserine
- acetylcarnitine
- dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE, Deaner)
- Ginkgo biloba
- Ephedra
- external trigeminal nerve stimulator[66] FDA-approved April 2019
- screening: all children age 4-18 with academic or behavioral problems plus inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity[22]
- prognosis:
- delay of treatment associated with decline in school performance[26]
- no cure; children seldom outgrow it
- gradual improvement with age in most patients[18]
- deficits persist at least 3 decades[27]
- as adults, boys with ADHD
- lower educational achievement
- lower occupational levels
- lower salaries
- higher rates of substance abuse
- higher rates of antisocial personality disorder
- as adults, boys with ADHD
- treatment may reduce criminal conviction rates in male & female patients with ADHD[28]
- some find adaptive ways to deal with disorder
- periodic drug holidays for adults may be useful for assessing need for continued medication[18]
- organizations providing assistance[7][15]
* agents under FDA investigation for adverse effects[10]
Notes
- DSM-5 causes concern for overdiagnosis[32]
- ADHD often overdiagnosed & overtreated, a trend fueled by pharmaceutical advertisements targeting physicians & parents[34]
- ADHD medications diverted by parents[53]
- adherence to ADHD medications low at start & end of fall semester, especially among first-year students[58]
- sharing of ADHD medications offered as partial explanation
More general terms
References
- ↑ Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, Rakel (ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1996, pg 1037
- ↑ Prescriber's Letter 7(9):52 2000
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Journal Watch 22(8):65, 2002 Chervin RD, Archbold KH, Dillon JE et al Inattention, hyperactivity, and symptoms of sleep-disordered breathing. Pediatrics 109:449, 2002 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11875140
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Journal Watch 22(9):72-73, 2002
Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Pankratz VS, Weaver AL, Weber KJ, Mrazek DA, Jacobsen SJ. How common is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Incidence in a population-based birth cohort in Rochester, Minn. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002 Mar;156(3):217-24. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11876664
Wender EH. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: is it common? Is it overtreated? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002 Mar;156(3):209-10. No abstract available. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11876662 - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Journal Watch 23(5):42, 2003 Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S. Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics. 2003 Jan;111(1):179-85. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12509574
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Journal Watch 24(10):83, 2004 Christakis DA, Zimmerman FJ, DiGiuseppe DL, McCarty CA. Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics. 2004 Apr;113(4):708-13. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15060216
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Prescriber's Letter 11(8): 2004 Adjunctive Zinc in ADHD Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=200808&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Prescriber's Letter 11(10): 2004 Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults: An Update Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=201001&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Journal Watch 25(2):15, 2005 Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, Mouren MC. Iron deficiency in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004 Dec;158(12):1113-5. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15583094
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Prescriber's Letter 12(8): 2005 Safety Concerns of ADHD Drugs Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=210810&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Journal Watch 25(17):139, 2005 Gimpel GA, Collett BR, Veeder MA, Gifford JA, Sneddon P, Bushman B, Hughes K, Odell JD. Effects of stimulant medication on cognitive performance of children with ADHD. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2005 Jun;44(5):405-11. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15965546
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 McCann D et al, Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year old and 8/9 year-old children in the community. A randomised, double blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2007, 370:1560 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17825405
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Epstein JN, Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Kahn RS. Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007 Sep;161(9):857-64. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17768285
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Prescriber's Letter 15(6): 2008 Cardiovascular Screening and Monitoring of Children and Adolescents Receiving ADHD Drugs Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=240602&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Prescriber's Letter 15(9): 2008 Atomoxetine (Strattera) vs Methylphenidate for ADHD Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=240907&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Gould MS et al, Sudden Death and Use of Stimulant Medications in Youths Am J Psychiatry June 15, 2009 doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040472 http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/appi.ajp.2009.09040472v1
Vitello B and Towbin K Stimulant Treatment of ADHD and Risk of Sudden Death in Children Am J Psychiatry June 15, 2009 doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09050619 http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/appi.ajp.2009.09050619v1
FDA MedWatch Stimulant Medications used in Children with Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - Communication about an Ongoing Safety Review 06/15/2009 http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm166667.htm - ↑ Prescriber's Letter 16(11): 2009 Drug Treatment for Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=251106&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 15, 16,, 17, 18, 19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021.
Medical Knowledge Self Assessment Program (MKSAP) 19 Board Basics. An Enhancement to MKSAP19. American College of Physicians, Philadelphia 2022
Okie S. ADHD in adults. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 22;354(25):2637-41. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16790695 - ↑ Safren SA et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy vs relaxation with educational support for medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010 Aug 25; 304:875. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20736471
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Larson K et al Patterns of comorbidity, functioning, and service use for US children with ADHD, 2007. Pediatrics 2011 Mar; 127:46 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21300675
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Won H et al. GIT1 is associated with ADHD in humans and ADHD-like behaviors in mice. Nat Med 2011 May;17(5):566-72. Epub 2011 Apr 17 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21499268
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 ADHD: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents SUBCOMMITTEE ON ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER, STEERING COMMITTEE ON QUALITY IMPROVEMENT AND MANAGEMENT Pediatrics October 16, 2011 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22003063 (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Nov 2016)
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Cooper WE et al ADHD Drugs and Serious Cardiovascular Events in Children and Young Adults N Engl J Med November 1, 2011 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22043968 <Internet> http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110212
FDA MedWatch Nov 1m 2011 FDA Drug Safety Communication: Safety Review Update of Medications used to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children and young adults http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm277770.htm - ↑ Prescriber's Letter 18(12): 2011 CHART: Comparison of Drugs for ADHD GUIDELINES: Diagnosis and Management of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary Care for School-Age Children and Adolescents (2010) GUIDELINES: Implementing the Key Action Statements: An Algorithm and Explanation for Process of Care for the Evaluation, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Monitoring of ADHD in Children and Adolescents (2011) GUIDELINES: ADHD: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents (2011) Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=271221&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com (corresponding NGC guideline withdrawn Nov 2016)
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Prescriber's Letter 19(2): 2012 COMMENTARY: Pharmacotherapy of ADHD in Adults CHART: Comparison of Drugs for ADHD Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=280226&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Zoega H et al A Population-Based Study of Stimulant Drug Treatment of ADHD and Academic Progress in Children Pediatrics June 25, 2012 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22732167 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2012/06/20/peds.2011-3493.abstract
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Klein RG et al Clinical and Functional Outcome of Childhood Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder 33 Years Later. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;():1-9. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23070149 <Internet> http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1378851
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Lichtenstein P et al. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. N Engl J Med 2012 Nov 22; 367:2006. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23171097
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. Lancet, Early Online Publication, 28 February 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23453885 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)62129-1/abstract
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Prescriber's Letter 20(3): 2013 COMMENTARY: Managing ADHD Stimulant Side Effects CHART: Comparison of Drugs for ADHD Detail-Document#: http://prescribersletter.com/(5bhgn1a4ni4cyp2tvybwfh55)/pl/ArticleDD.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=PRL&pt=3&fpt=25&dd=290321&pb=PRL (subscription needed) http://www.prescribersletter.com
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Charach A et al Interventions for Preschool Children at High Risk for ADHD: A Comparative Effectiveness Review Pediatrics. April 1, 2013 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23545375 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/03/27/peds.2012-0974.abstract
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Thomas R et al Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: are we helping or harming? BMJ 2013;347:f6172 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24192646 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6172
- ↑ Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. JAMA. 2004 Aug 4;292(5):619-23. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15292088
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Schwatz A. The Selling of Attention Deficit Disorder. The Number of Diagnoses Soared Amid a 20-Year Drug Marketing Campaign. New York Times. Dec 14, 2013 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/15/health/the-selling-of-attention-deficit-disorder.html?_r=0
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Liew Z, Ritz B, Rebordosa C et al Acetaminophen Use During Pregnancy, Behavioral Problems, and Hyperkinetic Disorders. JAMA Pediatr. February 24, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24566677 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1833486
Cooper M, Langley K, Thapar A Antenatal Acetaminophen Use and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. An Interesting Observed Association But Too Early to Infer Causality. JAMA Pediatr. February 24, 2014 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24566519 <Internet> http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1833483 - ↑ 36.0 36.1 Harstad EB et al. ADHD, stimulant treatment, and growth: A longitudinal study. Pediatrics 2014 Sep; 134:1 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25180281 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2014/08/26/peds.2014-0428
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Hiscock H et al Impact of a behavioural sleep intervention on symptoms and sleep in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and parental mental health: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2015;350:h68 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25646809 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h68
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Dalsgaard S et al Mortality in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a nationwide cohort study. Lancet. Feb 25, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25726514 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2961684-6/abstract
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Schwartz DL et al. Energy drinks and youth self-reported hyperactivity/ inattention symptoms. Acad Pediatr 2015 Feb 8 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25676784 <Internet> http://www.academicpedsjnl.net/article/S1876-2859%2814%2900425-2/abstract
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 Orciari Herman A, Sofair A, Chavey WE CDC Releases First National Data on ADHD Treatment in Kids Physician's First Watch, April 3, 2015 David G. Fairchild, MD, MPH, Editor-in-Chief Massachusetts Medical Society http://www.jwatch.org
Visser SN et al Treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder among Children with Special Health Care Needs. Journal of Pediatrics. March 31, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25841538 <Internet> http://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476%2815%2900138-9/fulltext
CDC Newsroom. April 1, 2015 CDC publishes first national study on use of behavioral therapy, medication and dietary supplements for ADHD in children. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0401-adhd.html - ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Dalsgaard S, Leckman JF, Mortensen PB et al Effect of drugs on the risk of injuries in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a prospective cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry. July 21, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26249301 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366%2815%2900271-0/fulltext
Newcorn JH Medication for ADHD and accidental injury. The Lancet Psychiatry. July 21, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26249279 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366%2815%2900321-1/abstract - ↑ 42.0 42.1 Miodovnik A et al Timing of the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pediatrics peds.2015-1502; September 14, 2015 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26371198 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/09/08/peds.2015-1502
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Storebo OJ et al Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Cochrane systematic review with meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses of randomised clinical trials. BMJ 2015;351:h5203 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26608309 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h5203
Fazel M Methylphenidate for ADHD. BMJ 2015;351:h5875 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26608974 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h5875 - ↑ 44.0 44.1 Newcorn JH et al. Extended-release guanfacine hydrochloride in 6-17-year olds with ADHD: A randomised-withdrawal maintenance of efficacy study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2016 Feb 12 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26871297
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Chen MH, Lan WH, Bai YM et al Influence of Relative Age on Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Taiwanese Children. The Journal of Pediatrics. March 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26973148 <Internet> http://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476%2816%2900160-8/fulltext
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Visser SN et al Vital Signs: National and State-Specific Patterns of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Among Insured Children Aged 2-5 Years - United States 2008-2014 MMWR. Early Release / May 3, 2016 / 65 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6517e1.htm
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 Agnew-Blais JC et al Evaluation of the Persistence, Remission, and Emergence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online May 18, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27192174 <Internet> http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2522750
Caye A et al Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Trajectories From Childhood to Young AdulthoodEvidence From a Birth Cohort Supporting a Late-onset Syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online May 18, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27192050 <Internet> http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2522749
Faraone SV, Biederman J Can Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Onset Occur in Adulthood? JAMA Psychiatry. Published online May 18, 2016 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27191055 <Internet> http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2522743 - ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Tung I, Li JJ, Meza JI et al. Patterns of comorbidity among girls with ADHD: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2016 Oct; 138:e20160430. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27694280 <Internet> http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/09/19/peds.2016-0430
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Sujan AC, Rickert ME, Oberg AS et al Associations of Maternal Antidepressant Use During the First Trimester of Pregnancy With Preterm Birth, Small for Gestational Age, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Offspring. JAMA. 2017 Apr 18;317(15):1553-1562. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28418479
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Chang Z, Quinn PD, Hur K, Gibbons RD et al Association Between Medication Use for Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder and Risk of Motor Vehicle Crashes. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online May 10, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28492937 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2626505
Madaan V, Cox DJ. Distracted Driving With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online May 10, 2017. <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28492867 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2626500 - ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Man KK et al Prenatal antidepressant use and risk of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in offspring: population based cohort study. BMJ 2017;357:j2350 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28566274 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j2350
Pedersen LH The safety of antidepressants in pregnancy BMJ 2017;357:j2544 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28566283 <Internet> http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j2544 - ↑ 52.0 52.1 Curry AE, Metzger KB, Pfeiffer MR et al. Motor vehicle crash risk among adolescents and young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA Pediatr 2017 Jun 12 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28604931 <Internet> http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2631767
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Pham T, Milanaik R, Kaplan A, Papaioannou H, Adesman A. Household diversion of prescription stimulants: Medication misuse by parents of children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2017 Jul 7 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28686059
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Ystrom E, Gustavson K, Brandlistuen RE et al Prenatal Exposure to Acetaminophen and Risk of ADHD Pediatrics Oct 2017, e20163840 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29084830
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 Sayal K, Chudal R, Hinkka-Yli-Salomaki S et al. Relative age within the school year and diagnosis of attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder: A nationwide population-based study. Lancet Psychiatry 2017 Nov; 4:868. Online Oct 9, 2017 <PubMed> PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29033006 <Internet> http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(17)30394-2/fulltext
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Sibley MH, Rohde LA, Swanson JM et al. Late-onset ADHD reconsidered with comprehensive repeated assessments between ages 10 and 25. Am J Psychiatry 2017 Oct 20; PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29050505
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Melville NA Experimental ADHD Drugs Aimed at Aggression, Genetic Targets. Medscape - Jun 09, 2017. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/881351
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Gray WN, Kavookjian J, Shapiro SK et al. Transition to college and adherence to prescribed attention deficit hyperactivity disorder medication. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2018 Jan; 39:1 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28991147
Froehlich TE. ADHD medication adherence in college students - a call to action for clinicians and researchers. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2018 Jan; 39:77 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29084073 - ↑ Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents. AHRQ Systematic Review. Jan 25, 2018 https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/opics/adhd-update/systematic-review-2018
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Narad ME, Kennelly M, Zhang N, et al Secondary Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents 5 to 10 Years After Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Pediatr. Published online March 19, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29554197 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2675285
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 Maher GM, O'Keeffe GW, Kearney PM et al Association of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy With Risk of Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Offspring. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online June 6, 2018. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29874359 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2681643
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Ra CK, Cho J, Stone MD et al Association of Digital Media Use With Subsequent Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among Adolescents. JAMA. 2018;320(3):255-263 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30027248 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2687861
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 Cortese S, Adamo N, Del Giovane C et al Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. Aug 7, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30097390 Free Article https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(18)30269-4/fulltext
- ↑ Wei YJJ, Zhu Y, Liu W et al Prevalence of and Factors Associated With Long-term Concurrent Use of Stimulants and Opioids Among Adults With Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181152 Not indexed in PubMed https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2696508
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 Layton TJ, Barnett ML, Hicks TR, Jena AB Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder and Month of School Enrollment. N Engl J Med 2018; 379:2122-2130. Nov 29, 2018 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30485780 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1806828
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 FDA News Release. April 19, 2019 FDA permits marketing of first medical device for treatment of ADHD https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm636379.htm
- ↑ Wolraich ML, Hagan JF Jr, Allan C et al Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 2019 Oct;144(4) PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31570648 https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2019/09/26/peds.2019-2528
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 Skoglund C et al. Association of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with teenage birth among women and girls in Sweden. JAMA Netw Open 2019 Oct 2; 2:e1912463. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31577361 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2752090
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Chung W, Jiang SF, Paksarian D et al. Trends in the Prevalence and Incidence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among Adults and Children of Different Racial and Ethnic Groups. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1914344 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31675080 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2753787
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 Nielsen TC, Nassar N, Shand AW et al Association of Maternal Autoimmune Disease With Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder in Children. JAMA Pediatr. Published online January 19, 2021. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33464287 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2775254
Dalsgaard S More Evidence Linking Autoimmune Diseases to Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Pediatr. Published online January 19, 2021. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33464288 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2775248 - ↑ 71.0 71.1 Zhang L, Yao H, Li L et al Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases Associated With Medications Used in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(11):e2243597 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36416824 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2798903
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Windle ML Rapid Rx Quiz: Stimulants Medscape.Oct 23, 2022 https://reference.medscape.com/viewarticle/981392
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 Swift Yasgur B. Nonstimulants: A Better Option for ADHD? Medscape. July 21, 2023 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/994659
Price MZ, Price RL Extended-Release Viloxazine Compared with Atomoxetine for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. CNS Drugs. 2023. 37:655-660 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37430151 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40263-023-01023-6 - ↑ 74.0 74.1 Levine SZ, Rotstein A, Kodesh A et al Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Risk of Dementia. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(10):e2338088 PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37847497 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2810766
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 Dotinga R ADHD Tied to Keratoconus in Males. Excessive eye rubbing is often the culprit behind higher rates of this corneal ectasia. MedPage Today November 9, 2023 https://www.medpagetoday.com/ophthalmology/generalophthalmology/107243
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 Becker S, Chowdhury M, Tavilsup P, Seitz D, Callahan BL. Risk of neurodegenerative disease or dementia in adults with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Aug 17;14:1158546. PMID: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37663597 PMCID: PMC10469775 Free PMC article.
- ↑ NINDS Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder Information Page https://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/all-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-information-page
NIH consensus statement http://consensus.nih.gov/cons/110/110_statement.htm
Patient information
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) patient information